»W«»«i)«<M<nei<»i»im««i 


EUROPEAN  ii" 


ammassszxa:su 


Knowiton  and  How, 


■kMMii 


J^^ynor^^bc^/iA^^ri^ 


^»<W^J/i^y  9c)f/t/<^rTua, 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/essentialsinmodeOOknowrich 


»  ?  #  •  f  •• 


ESSENTIALS       .:••; 

IN 

MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


BY 
DANIEL    C.    KNOWLTON,    Ph.D. 

HEAD   OF   THE   DEPARTMENT  OF  HISTORY,   CENTRAL  HIGH   SCHOOL 
NEWARK,   NEW  JERSEY 

AND 

SAMUEL    B.    HOWE,    A.M. 

ACTING  HEAD   OF   THE   DEPARTMENT  OF   SOCIAL   SCIENCE,   SOUTH    SIDE 
HIGH   SCHOOL,   NEWARK,   NEW   JERSEY 


LONGMANS,  GREEN  AND  CO. 

FOURTH    AVENUE    &    3OTH    STREET,  NEW  YORK 

PRAIRIE    AVENUE    &   25TH    STREET,   CHICAGO 

I917 


MU 


'E'. 


Essentials  in  European  History  Series 

Essentials  in  Early  European  History 

Essentials  in  Modern  European  History 


H-7 


HJENRY  MORSe  rrCPHEMS 


COPYRIGHT,  191  7,  BY 
LONGMANS,  GREEN  AND  CO. 


PREFACE 

An  understanding  of  contemporary  Europe  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  an  appreciation  of  two  lines  of  development 
which  have  their  origin  back  in  the  early  years  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  one  gave  rise  to  modem  methods  of 
carrying  on  business  and  industry ;  the  other  gave  us  a  new 
conception  of  the  relation  of  government  and  the  governed. 
In  other  words,  to  form  a  proper  estimate  of  existing  conditions 
in  Europe  we  must  follow  step  by  step  the  revolutionary 
changes  in  commerce  and  industry  and  the  tremendous  ad- 
vance of  democracy  which  have  in  a  special  manner  charac- 
terized the  history  of  the  past  century  and  a  quarter. 

The  effort  of  the  authors  of  the  present  volume  has  been 
to  present  in  bold  relief  these  particular  phases  of  modem  life, 
mindful  at  the  same  time  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining 
throughout  a  proper  perspective.  This  task  becomes  increas- 
ingly difficult  as  we  approach  oiit  bwn  day.  The  march  of 
events,  however,  has  been  so  rapid  that  correspondingly  more 
space  has  been  devoted  to  contemporary  history  than  to  the 
earlier  epochs.  An  effort  has  been  made  throughout  the 
volume  to  emphasize  only  the  sahent  points  in  European  prog- 
ress and  to  present  them  in  a  form  attractive  to  high  school 
students,  showing  the  interrelation  of  these  facts  and  empha- 
sizing especially  their  bearing  upon  the  two  aspects  of  the 
history  of  Europe  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 

Those  teachers  who  favor  placing  special  emphasis  upon 
the  development  of  England  in  presenting  the  history  of  Eurof)e 
will,  we  trust,  find  sufficient  material  for  their  purpose  in  the 
accompanying  pages.  The  authors,  however,  have  sought  to 
avoid  giving  undue  prominence  to  English  development,  realiz- 
ing that  other  states  on  the  continent  have  played  no  inconsid- 
erable part  in  world  progress.  Their  object  has  been  rather 
to  give  the  high  school  student  just  that  residuum  of.  facts  and 

iii 

51.0831 


iv  PREIfACE 

impressions  about  Europe,  as  a  whole,  which  should  be  the 
possession  of  every  well-informed  man  of  affairs.  The  volume 
/does  not  represent  in  any  sense  a  compromise  between  Euro- 
pean and  English  history.  It  follows  very  closely  the  outlines 
prepared  for  the  History  Teachers  Magazine  a  few  years  ago 
by  Dr.  A.  M.  Wolfson  of  the  Julia  Richman  High  School, 
New  York  City,  in  association  with  one  of  the  authors  of  the 
present  volume.  These  outlines  represented  an  attempt  to  put 
in  definite  syllabus  form  the  ideas  of  the  framers  of  the  report 
of  the  Committee  of  Five.  This  syllabus  has  been  carefully 
tested  out  in  the  class  room,  and  the  present  volume  has 
been  prepared  in  harmony  with  these  experiences.  The 
authors  trust  it  will  serve  to  crystallize  the  divergent  views  as 
to  what  should  be  taught  in  the  secondary  school  in  the  field 
of  contemporary  history  and  will  also  give  an  added  impetus 
to  instruction  of  a  broader  and  more  cosmopolitan  character. 
In  this  event  it  will  have  served  a  most  useful  purpose  and 
will  amply  repay  the  time  and  effort  expended. 

The  authors'  thanks  and  appreciation  are  due  to  Professor 
George  Mathew  Butcher  of  Wesleyan  University  and  to  Mr. 
H.  F.  Biddle  of  the  Plainfield,  New  Jersey  High  School,  for 
critical  reading  of  the  proofs,  to  Mr.  J.  C.  Ware  of  the  South 
Side  High  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey,  for  help  in  securing 
illustrations,  and  to  Mrs.  J.  M.  Bensing  of  the  North  Plainfield, 
New  Jersey  Schools  for  assistance  with  the  collateral  reading 
references. 

The  authors  wish  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  for  the 
following  illustrations:  to  the  Avery  Library  of  Columbia 
University,  for  several  of  the  illustrations;  to  Stevens  Insti- 
tute, for  "John  Stevens's  Locomotive;"  to  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  Company  for  "The  Modern  Locomotive;"  to  Mr. 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  and  to  the  New  York  Times,  for  "Le 
Bourget  30th  October,  1870"  by  Detaille;  to  II  Progresso,  for 
"The  Victor  Emmanuel  Monument;"  and  to  the  New  York 
Telephone  Company,  for  "The  Telephone  Exchange,  Old  and 
Modern." 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  ONE 

SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  IN  EUROPE   IN  THE 

EARLY  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY  p^CE 

1.  Introduction      i 

2.  The  establishment  of  constitutional  government  in  England   .    .  2 

3.  The  party  system 4 

4.  England  in  1740 5 

5.  The  establishment  of  the  power  of  the  monarch  in  France  ...  8 

6.  Rise  of  Russia  and  decay  of  Sweden 16 

7.  Rise  of  Prussia 20 

8.  The  passing  of  Holland 21 

9.  The  decay  and  attempted  revival  of  Spain      22 

10.  The  great  states  about  1 740 23 

11.  The  reform  movement 23 

12.  The  philosophers  and  economists 24 

13.  Their  influence:   the  age  of  enlightened  despotism 25 

CHAPTER  TWO 

INDUSTRIAL   AND   COMMERCIAL   CONDITIONS    IN   EUROPE   IN   THE 
EARLY   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

14.  The  guild  system      32 

15.  Government  interference  with  and  regulation  of  industry    ...  34 

16.  Changes  in  the  guild  system 35 

17.  The   domestic   system    and    the   germination   of    the   modern 

factory 36 

18.  Domestic  trade:  its  nature  and  importance 38 

19.  Trade  routes  and  transportation  facilities 40 

20.  Banking  facilities      42 

21.  The  stock  exchange      44 

22.  Rise  and  development  of  the  trading  company 44 

23.  The  Portuguese  as  traders  and  colonists 47 

24.  The  Spanish  colonial  empire:  the  poHcy  of  the  Spanish  rulers    .  48 

25.  The  Dutch  as  traders 4Q 

26.  The  mercantile  system 50 

27.  The  new  science  of  political  economy:    its  relation  to  trade 

and  industry     53 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  THREE 

THE  RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  POWERS  AND  THE 
COMMERCIAL   WARS  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

28.  The  older  world  powers  and  their  decay 57 

29.  The  expansion  of  England  and  France 58 

30.  The  rivalry  between  England  and  France    . 62 

31.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  and  its  efifects  upon  colonial 

and  commercial  development 63 

32.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 66 

33.  Colonial  interests  involved 68 

34.  The  French  and  Indian  War 70 

35.  Clive  in  India       72 

36.  The  Seven  Years'  War 74 

37.  Attempts  of  England  to  modify  her  colonial  policy   ......  75 

38.  The  opposition  in  America 80 

39.  The  American  Revolution 83 

CHAPTER  FOUR 

THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  THE  END  OF  THE  OLD  ORDER 
IN  FRANCE 

40.  The  old  order  and  the  reform  movement  in  France 90 

41.  Class  privileges 90 

42.  Feudal  survivals 91 

43.  Financial  mismanagement 92 

44.  The  system  of  taxation 93 

45.  Economic  burdens      96 

46.  Organization  of  the  government 96 

47.  The  administration  of  justice 97 

48.  Condition  of  the  common  people 97 

49.  Agitation  under  Louis  XV      98 

50.  Louis  XVI  and  his  efiforts  at  reform 99 

51.  Necker  and  the  summoning  of  the  States  General loi 

52.  Formation  of  the  National  Constituent  Assembly 104 

53.  Interference  of  Paris:  Fall  of  the  Bastille 107 

54.  The  end  of  the  old  order no 

55.  Removal  of  the  government  to  Paris in 

56.  The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  and  the  Constitution 

of  1791 113 

57.  The  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  and  the  flight  of  the  king    .   .  116 

CHAPTER  FIVE 

THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  STRUGGLE  WITH  EUROPE 

^8.   Decline  of  the  monarchy 122 

59.   Rise  of  clubs  and  parties 123 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

60.  Opposition  of  the  king  to  the  assembly  and  the  outbreak  of  war  126 

61.  The  abolition  of  royalty  and  its  consequences 127 

62.  The  Convention  and  the  declaration  of  the  republic 131 

63.  The  crisis  of  1793  and  formation  of  the  Committee  of  Public 

Safety 135 

64.  Work  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety 136 

65.  Dictatorship  of  Robespierre  and  his  overthrow 140 

-66.  The  reestablishment  of  constitutional  government 144 

67.  The  dismemberment  of  Poland      ..." 146 

CHAPTER  SIX 

THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 

68.  The  government  and  the  army  in  1 795 149 

69.  Training  and  personality  of  Bonaparte 150 

70.  Bonaparte  in  Italy:  Campaign  of  1796-7 154 

71.  Bonaparte  in  Egypt 156 

72.  Establishment  of  Bonaparte's  power  in  France 159 

73.  The  work  of  peace 162 

74.  The  establishment  of  Bonaparte's  power  in  Italy 165 

75.  Bonaparte  and  England 166 

76.  Extension  of  Napoleon's  power  over  central  Europe 168 

77.  Napoleon's  power  at  its  height 171 

78.  The  influence  of  the  Napoleonic  regime 174 

79.  The  nationalist  reaction  against  Napoleon 176 

80.  The  Moscow  campaign  and  the  War  of  Liberation 1 79 

81.  The  Hundred  Days  and  Waterloo 181 

82.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  and  the  reconstruction  of  Europe  .    .    .  182 

CHAPTER  SEVEN 

THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

83.  The  old  manorial  system  of  agriculture  and  its  defects     ....  190 

84.  Improvements  in  methods  of  tillage     192 

85.  The  revolution  in  agriculture 194 

86.  The  nature  of  the  industrial  revolution 195 

87.  The  revolution  in  the  manufacture  of  textiles .  196 

88.  Improvements  in  the  iron  industry  and  in  pottery ''  .  200 

89.  The  steam  engine  and  its  application  to  industry 201 

90.  The  revolution  in  transportation 203 

91.  The  factory  system  and  its  effects 206 

92.  The  effects  of  the  industrial  revolution 209 

93.  Growth  of  socialism 213 

94.  The  industrial  revolution  on  the  continent 215 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  EIGHT 

METTERNICH  AND  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL 

GOVERNMENT  PAGE 

95.  Metternich  and  the  reaction  in  Europe 219 

96.  The  Tory  reaction  in  England 222 

97.  Metternich  and  the  Holy  Alliance 225 

98.  Struggle  for  constitutional  government 226 

99.  Unrest  in  Germany  and  the  doctrine  of  intervention     ,    ,    .    .    .  229 

100.  The  July  revolution  and  its  effects 231 

loi.  The  revolution  of  1848  in  France 235 

102.  The  revolution  of  1848  in  Germany 237 

103.  The  revolution  of  1848  in  Austria 240 

104.  The  revolutionary  movement  in  Italy 242 

105.  Results  of  the  revolution  of  1848 ,   .    .    .    .  244 

106.  Recognition  of  the  rights  of  the  people  in  England 245 

107.  The  reform  measures  of  1832-3 247 

108.  Other  social  reforms 250 

CHAPTER  NINE 

THE   ASCENDANCY   OF   NAPOLEON   AND   THE   NATIONALIST  WARS, 
1848-1871 

109.  Character  and  aims  of  Louis  Napoleon 256 

no.  The  Second  Republic  and  its  problems 258 

111.  The  formation  of  the  Second  Empire 260 

112.  The  new  empire  and  Europe:  The  Crimean  War 262 

113.  Mazzini  and  Cavour  and  the  struggle  for  Italian  unity    ....  265 

114.  The  completion  of  Italian  unity 267 

115.  The  rise  of  Prussian  leadership  in  Germany 273 

116.  Bismarck  and  the  reform  of  the  army 276 

117.  The  Seven   Weeks'  War  and   the  exclusion  of  Austria  from 

Germany 278 

118.  Intrigues  and  enterprises  of  Napoleon  III 281 

119.  Outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  War 282 

120.  The  close  of  the  war  and  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire  .  287 

CHAPTER  TEN 

/THE  EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   INTO   ASIA   AND  AFRICA 
THE  NEAR  EAST  AND  AFRICA 

121.  Conditions  favorable  to  the  spread  of  European  influence  in 

Asia  and  in  Africa 295 

122.  European  rivalries  and  the  growth  of  Imperialism 302 

123.  The  nature  and  origin  of  the  Near  Eastern  Question 303 

124.  The  War  for  Greek  independence      305 

125.  The  struggle  between  Turkey  and  Egypt 307 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

126.  Russia  and  the  Crimean  War 308 

127.  The  Russo-Turkish  War  and  the  Congress  of  Berlin 310 

128.  The  emergence  of  the  Balkan  states,  1 8 78-1 908 312 

129.  The  Turkish  revolution  and  its  consequences 315 

130.  The  opening  up  of  Africa  by  the  missionaries  and  explorers    .    ,  317 

131.  England  and  France  in  Egypt 320 

132.  France,  Germany  and  Italy  in  Africa 321 

133.  The  extension  of  English  influence  in  South  Africa 324 

CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

THE  EXPANSION   OF   EUROPE  INTO   ASIA   AND  AFRICA    (Continued) 
THE  FAR  EAST  AND  THE  EUROPEAN  WAR  OF  IQI4 

134.  Origin  of  the  Far  Eastern  question 326 

135.  The  awakening  of  Japan 331 

136.  China  and  its  civilization 333 

137.  Chino- Japanese  War,  1894-5,  and  its  effects 336 

138.  The  conflict  between  Russia  and  Japan 339 

139.  Japan  as  a  great  power 341 

140.  The  great  colonial  powers  of  the  present  day      344 

141.  The   influence   of    expansion    upon    the    European   situation: 

the  European  War  of  1914 349 

CHAPTER  TWELVE 

THE   ADVANCE   OF  DEMOCRACY 

142.  The  domestic   problems   of   individual   states   in    1870:    their 

origin  and   nature 359 

143.  The  preponderance  of  Germany  in  Europe:   maintenance  of  the 

monarchical  principle 363 

144.  Bismarck's  domestic  policy 367 

145.  The  reign  of  William  II 368 

146.  The  maintenance  of  autocracy  in  Russia 370 

147.  Nicholas  II  and  the  struggle  for  representative  government    .    .  374 

148.  The  Third  Republic  in  France 376 

149.  The  spread  of  constitutional  government  and  the  extension  of  the 

suffrage 381 

150.  The  Irish  question  and  the  reform  of  Parliament 384 

151.  The  separation  of  Church  and  State  in  Europe 393 

152.  The  spread  of  socialism  and  the  increase  of  social  legislation  .    .  395 

153.  Intellectual  and  scientific  progress  in  Europe      398 

Appendix  I.  Important  Events  in  European  History 407 

Appendix  II.   General  Bibliography 411 

Appendix  III.  A  Synchronological  Chart  Showing  the  Rulers  of  the 

Principal  European  States  from  1688  to  1916 417 

Index 421 


LIST  OF  MAPS  AND  PLANS 

PAGE 

Sweden  and  Russia  at  the  Time  of  Peter  the  Great 17 

The  Portuguese  Colonial  Empire  about  1550 46 

Spain's  Colonial  Empire  about  1550 49 

The  Colonial  Empire  of  Holland  about  1650 51 

European  Powers  in  the  East  about  1700 60 

Western  Europe  at  Outbreak  of  War  of  Spanish  Succession.     (Colored) 

facing  62 
Western  Europe  at  the  Close  of  War  of  Spanish  Succession. ,    (Colored) 

facing  65 

French  Colonial  Empire  from  the  17th  to  the  Early  19th  Centuries. .  71 

India  before  Clive.     (Colored) ' facing  72 

India  in  1785.     (Colored) facing  72 

Growth  of  Brandenburg-Prussia 74 

The  World  (1772).     (Colored) facing  82 

British  Colonial  Empire  in  1783 85 

Plan  of  Revolutionary  Paris 109 

France  in  1 789 114 

France  in  1791 iiS 

Europe  in  1789.     (Colored) facing  178 

Europe  in  1812.     (Colored) facing  178 

Industrial  England,  1 700-1 750 211 

Industrial  England  since  1750 .  211 

Industrial  Map  of  Europe.     (Colored) fctcing  215 

Europe  in  1815.     (Colored) facing  219 

Distribution  of  Races  in  Austria-Hungary 223 

Austrian  Possessions  in  1848 223 

Italy  in  1815 269 

Italy,  Showing  Dates  of  Unification 269 

German  Empire,  Showing  Dates  of  Unification 290 

Ottoman  Empire  in  1878 313 

Ottoman  Empire  after  the  Balkan  Wars 313 

Africa  in  1884.     (Colored) facing  318 

Africa  in  1914.     (Colored) facing  318 

The  Far  East  in  1815.     (Colored) facing  326 

The  Far  East  in  1914.     (Colored) facing  326 

Territorial  Possessions  of  Great  Britain,  1914 346 

Territorial  Possessions  of  France,  1914 347 

Territorial  Possessions  of  Germany,  1914 347 

Territorial  Possessions  of  Portugal,  1914 348 

Territorial  Possessions  of,  Holland,  1914 348 

Territorial  Possessions  of  the  United  States,  1914 348 

The  Great  World  War,  1914-   351 

World  Colonies  and  Dependencies,  1914.     (Colored) between  358,  359 

Europe  in  1914.     (Colored) facing  398 

X 


MODERN   EUROPEAN    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  I 

SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  IN  EUROPE 
IN  THE  EARLY  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

1.   Introduction.  —  With  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  history  of  Europe  centres  largely  about  two  countries 
whose  beginnings  carry  us  back  into  the  early  Middle  Ages, 
France  and  England.     Germany,  or  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  as  The  Holy 
it  was  officially  known,  had  sunk  back  into  a  position  of  insig-  ^°™*°  ^™i 
nificance.    The  religious  wars,  which  closed  with  the  Treaties 
of  Westphalia  in  1648,  had  left  her  so  weak  politically  and  so 
exhausted  economically  that  she  had  ceased  to  play  any  con- 
siderable part  in  European  affairs.     It  was  no  longer  necessary 
for  Europe  to  reckon  with  Spain,  or  to  fear  the  weight  of  her 
influence.    This  was  because  of  the  disasters  which  had  accom- 
panied the  efforts  of  Philip  II  to  stem  the  tide  of  Protestantism, 
especially  his  supreme  move,  the  sending  of  the  Spanish  Armada  The  Spanis 
(1588).      Although  France,  like  Germany,  had  been  torn  asun-  a™*<^ 
der  by  a  series  of  religious  struggles,  known  as  the  Huguenot 
Wars  (1562-1598),  she  was  fortunate  in  having  at  her  com- 
mand a  succession  of  great  men  like  Henry  IV,  Richelieu,  and 
Mazarin,  who  not  only  healed  the  wounds  occasioned  by  this  France 
long  struggle  but  created  by  their  labors  a  state  so  strong  .as 
immediately  to  play  a  leading  part  in  shaping  the  history  of 
all  western  Europe.    The  period  in  her  history  from  1661  to 
1 71 5  marks  the  reign  of  one  of  her  greatest  kings,  Louis  XIV,  ^^  ^^ 
who  practically  dominated  his  age  and  was  the  representative 

I 


/;.  :  ;/'i';  .^SENTIALS    iN   MODERN    EUROPEAN    HISTORY 

ruler  of  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  had  been  the  centre  of 
interest;  then  the  rising  states  of  France  and  England.  They 
dropped  out  of  sight  for  a  time  as  the  result  of  the  long  and 
bitter  warfare  which  began  in  the  reign  of  the  English  king, 
Edward  III,  and  with  the  Renaissance  period  Spain  became 
the  great  European  state;  with  the  end  oi  the  eighteenth 
century,  however,  France  and  England  came  into  their  own 
again  and  Spain  sank  into  insignificance. 

2.  The  Establishment  of  Constitutional  Government  in 
England.  —  England  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury began  to  stand  for  certain  lines  of  development;  the 
same  thing  may  also  be  said  of  France.  In  England  the  people 
had  been  recognized  as  the  real  source  of  authority,  enjoying 
an  amount  of  liberty  unknown  upon  the  continent  of  Europe. 
They  had  been  admitted  to  an  important  share  in  the  govern- 
ment and  were  conspicuous  for  their  share  in  the  management 
of  their  own  affairs.  It  had  been  a  long  struggle.  The  Stuart 
kings  who  came  to  the  throne  at  the  very  opening  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  (1603)  tried  to  rule  as  absolute  monarchs  and 
were  so  unmindful  of  the  rights  of  the  people  that  the  second 
king  of  that  line,  Charles  I,  plunged  England  into  the  Great 

The  Great  Civil  War.  He  was  striving  to  establish  his  right  to  rule  Eng- 
land without  a  parliament,  denying  to  the  people  any  partici- 
pation in  the  government  through  their  representatives.  Even 
though  for  the  moment  England  was  ruled  by  the  Rump  Par- 
liament, his  execution  estabHshed  the  right  of  the  people  to 
a  voice  in  their  government.  When  his  son,  Charles  II,  was 
restored  to  the  throne  in  1660,  the  right  of  the  people  to  share 
with  the  King  in  the  government  was  clearly  recognized,  as 
the  Declaration  of  Breda,  which  outlined  the  conditions  of  the 

The  Restoration  Restoration,  provided  for  the  settlement  by  parliament  of  such 
vexed  questions  as  the  relation  between  church  and  state, 
and  the  rights  and  privileges  to  be  accorded  to  those  who 
had  supported  the  Puritan  cause.    Charles  II  found  it  neces- 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  3 

sary  first  to  select  a  single  man  and  later  a  group  of  men 
to  act  as  intermediaries  between  himself  and  parliament, 
that  he  might  work  in  harmony  with  their  wishes.  He 
found  these  in  men  like  the  Earl  of  Clarendon  and  the 
Earl  of  Danby  and  in  the  Uttle  group  known  as  the  Cabal. 
In  the  latter  is  to  be  seen  the  beginnings  of  the  modern 
cabinet.  His  successor,  James  II,  however,  undertook  to  rule 
England  as  tyrannically  as  had  his  father,  Charles  I,  before  him, 
but  not  by  dismissing  parliament.  He  assumed  the  right  to 
dispense  with  such  laws  as  interfered  with  his  freedom  of  ac- 
tion, suspending  the  operation  of  others  when  they  came  in 
conflict  with  his  authority.  His  object  seems  to  have  been  to 
make  England  Catholic.  His  subjects,  however,  rose  in  rebellion 
and  he  fled  the  country,  taking  refuge  at  the  court  of  Louis 
XIV  in  France.  This  was  the  Revolution  of  1688.  Parliament  Revolution  of 
issued  an  invitation  to  his  Protestant  daughter  Mary  and  her  '^^ 
husband  WiUiam  of  Orange  to  come  over  from  Holland  and 
rule  England,  and  in  drawing  up  the  terms  upon  which  the  new 
sovereigns  should  rule  the  country  they  established  the  idea  or 
principle  firmly  in  England  that  parliament  was  not  alone 
equal  to  the  king  and  a  partner  with  him  in  the  management 
of  affairs,  but  that  it  was  really  his  superior;  that  from  it  he 
derived  all  his  power  and  authority.  This  great  document  was 
known  as  the  Bill  of  Rights.  This,  with  the  Toleration  Act  of  The  Biii  of 
1689,  practically  removed  for  all  time  the  question  of  re-  ^ 
ligion  from  English  politics  as  a  paramount  issue.  The  former 
provided  in  one  of  its  clauses  that  the  ruler  must  be  a  member 
of  the  Church  of  England;  the  Toleration  Act  gave  to  every  The  Toieratio 
Protestant,  other  than  Unitarians,  the  right  to  worship  God 
according  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience.  Catholics  were 
excluded  from  the  provisions  of  the  act,  as  were  also  the  Jews. 
It  was  long  after  this  before  they  were  permitted  to  hold  political 
office  and  were  allowed  the  right  to  worship  as  they  pleased. 
With  one  exception,  that  of  Prussia,  England  stood  alone 
among  the  nations  of  Europe  in  the  recognition  of  the  princi- 


ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Act  of 
Settlement 


The  Declaration 
of  Indulgence 
and  Exclusion 
Bill 


The  Whigs 
and  Tories 


The  Whig  Junto 


pie  of  toleration.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  principle 
was  also  recognized  at  a  very  early  date  in  certain  of  our 
American  colonies.  The  Act  of  Settlement  (1701),  which  may 
also  be  considered  as  one  of  the  direct  consequences  of  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  made  provision  for  a  Protestant  succes- 
sion by  recognizing  the  Electress  of  Hanover  as  next  in  suc- 
cession to  the  branch  of  Stuarts  represented  by  William  and 
Mary  and  Anne. 

3.  The  Party  System. —  At  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth 
century  England  was  ruled  by  parties.  These  were  known  as 
Whigs  and  Tories.  The  party  system  of  government,  which  is 
so  familiar  in  America  to-day,  developed  in  England  very  slowly 
and  had  its  origin  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II  (1660-1685). 
The  king  had  tried  to  show  favor  to  the  Catholics  by  a  Decla- 
ration of  Indulgence,  removing  some  of  the  restrictions  which 
had  been  placed  upon  them.  The  result  was  a  great  outburst 
of  opposition  from  the  Protestant  element  in  j)arliament  and 
throughout  the  country,  who  even  went  so  far  as  to  try  to 
exclude  from  the  throne  the  king's  brother,  who  was  known 
to  be  a  devout  Catholic.  A  bill  was  introduced  called  the 
Exclusion  Bill,  and  the  supporters  of  the  bill  were  known  as 
Petitioners;  its  opponents  as  Abhorrers.  The  struggle  ex- 
tended to  the  country  at  large,  and  the  two  parties  into  which 
the  people  divided  gradually  came  to  be  known  as  Whigs  and 
Tories,  designations  attached  to  the  Petitioners  and  Abhorrers 
as  nicknames.  By  the  close  of  the  reign  of  James  II,  England 
was  divided  between  these  two  parties,  and  the  invitation  sent 
to  William  and  Mary  in  1688  was  signed  by  their  recognized 
leaders.  When  William  tried  to  secure  the  passage  through 
parliament  of  such  measures  as  he  desired,  he  found  it  necessary 
to  consult  with  the  leaders  of  the  majority  party.  At  first 
he  tried  to  use  the  leaders  of  both  parties,  but  as  the  Whigs 
were  in  the  majority  at  the  time  he  was  forced  to  narrow 
his  choice  to  the  single  party  and  formed  what  was  known  as 
the   Whig   Junto.      This  marked   the   beginning  of   what   is 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  5 

called  cabinet  government. I  Any  measure  which  the  king  de- 
sired must  first  meet  with  the  approval  of  this  group  of  min- 
isters, who  then  made  it  their  business  to  see  that  it  met  with 
favorable  action  at  the  hands  of  the  party  in  parliament.  They 
stood  between  the  king  and  parliament  and  were  in  the  course 
of  time  looked  up  to  by  the  country  as  the  real  heads  of  the 
government.  George  I  did  not  trouble  himself  to  consult  with 
each  member  of  his  cabinet;  he  preferred  to  deal  with  one  of 
their  number,  who  could  act  as  their  spokesman,  and  so  the 
office  of  prime  minister  arose.  It  should  also  be  added  that  The  Prime 
this  king  did  not  care  to  attend  the  meetings  of  the  cabinet, 
as  he  understood  very  little  of  what  happened  there,  because 
of  his  ignorance  of  the  language;  and  this  arrangement, 
whereby  all  business  was  transacted  through  a  single  repre- 
sentative of  their  number,  seemed  to  answer  every  need.  Wal- 
pole  was  the  first  great  prime  minister  (17 21-1742),  but  he  Waipoie 
brought  the  office  and  the  party  system  into  some  disrepute 
by  his  unblushing  corruption.  He  cynically  remarked  of  a 
group  in  the  House  of  Commons,  ''Every  man  has  his  price," 
and  secured  and  maintained  his  leadership  and  that  of  his 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  buying  votes,  conferring 
titles,  bestowing  commissions  in  the  army  and  navy,  and 
utilizing  the  various  expedients  at  his  command  to  secure 
the  necessary  number  of  votes  for  his  legislation. 

4.  England  in  1740.  —  The  English  system  of  party  gov- 
ernment, which  was  the  only  government  of  its  kind  in  Europe, 
was  thoroughly  established  by  1740.  It  could  be  looked  upon 
as  essentially  democratic  in  character,  i.e. ,  based  upon  the  idea 
that  the  people  were  the  centre  and  source  of  all  power.  When 
we  come  to  examine  the  two  parties  which  ruled  the  country 
at  this  time,  we  find  that  these  did  not  draw  their  membership 
from  the  entire  male  population.  In  the  first  place  there  were 
great  numbers  who  were  excluded  from  voting  and  holding  Voting 
office  by  the  provisions  of  the  Toleration  Act  and  such  meas- 
1  See  Sec.  2  on  the  Cabal, 


Representation 


6       ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

ures  as  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  passed  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  Then  again  the  system  of  representation,  which 
had  been  fixed  long  before  this  time,  provided  only  for  the 
representation  of  certain  communities.  The  conditions  of 
voting  were  fixed  at  the  same  time  as  the  representation  and 
varied  according  to  the  particular  district  which  returned  mem- 


An  Eighteenth-century  Election 
In  this  spirited  engraving  by  Hogarth,  the  great  cartoonist  and  satirist 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  shown  the  method  of  ''Polling  the  Vote"  at  an 
English  election.  Voting  was  by  word  of  mouth,  and  every  opportunity  for 
intimidation  and  fraud  existed.  This  was  one  of  the  abuses  corrected  by  law 
during  the  nineteenth  century. 

bers  to  the  House  of  Commons.  In  consequence  of  these  ar- 
rangements only  the  wealthy  mercantile  and  commercial  classes 
in  the  towns  and  cities  and  the  squires,  or  country  gentlemen 
with  considerable  estates  in  the  rural  districts,  enjoyed  the  right 
either  to  elect  members  of  parliament  or  to  offer  themselves  as 
candidates  for  election  to  the  lower  house.  These  classes,  then, 
ruled  England  through  their  respective  parties.  The  Whigs  were 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  7 

powerful  in  the  urban  communities;  the  Tories  in  the  country 
districts.  In  general  the  Tories  could  be  found  supporting 
the  king  and  royal  authority;  they  were  the  conservative  ele- 
ment in  the  community.  The  Whigs,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
a  more  aggressive,  radical  body,  incUned  to  protest  against  any 
unusual  exercise  of  authority  on  the  part  of  the  king  or  of  his 
ministers.  They  were  keenly  interested  in  the  expansion  of 
England's  trade  and  in  the  development  of  her  commerce. 
The  Tories  naturally  represented  the  agricultural  interests  of 
the  country. 

The  gradual  increase  in  the  control  of  parties  may  be  seen 
by  examining  the  reigns  of  the  English  rulers  from  the  ac- 
cession of  William  and  Mary  through  the  reign  of  George  I 
(1688-1727).  In  Anne's  reign  the  queen,  though  opposed  to 
the  Whigs,  was  powerless  to  prevent  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  or  to  bring  it  to  a  close.  Although  war  was  declared 
by  the  Tories  the  struggle  was  essentially  a  Whig  affair,  waged 
to  further  their  commercial  interests.  The  Whigs  soon  ousted  Power  of 
the  Tories,  directing  the  course  of  events  from  1705  to  17 10.  ^^^^^ 
The  Tories  finally  succeeded  in  getting  the  upper  hand  and 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace,  but  quickly  lost  their  advantage 
when  George  I  came  to  the  throne,  and  his  reign  marked  the 
beginning  of  a  long  period  of  Whig  domination. 

The  English  government  then  was  in  the  hands  of  a  king  whose 
power,  in  the  course  of  events,  had  been  largely  transferred  to  a 
prime  minister,  although  all  business  was  still  transacted  in  the 
king's  name;  a  cabinet,  drawn  from  the  same  party  as  the  prime 
minister  and  largely  subject  to  his  control  and  leadership;  and  a 
parliament  consisting  of  two  houses  but  dominated  largely  by 
the  lower  house,  in  which  a  constant  struggle  was  being  waged 
between  Whigs  and  Tories.  Neither  the  cabinet  nor  prime  Relation  of 
minister  were  recognized  by  law.  This  very  important  part  of  ^*^*"®*  *°  ^ 
the  governmental  machinery  developed  as  the  result  of  the 
needs  and  circumstances  of  the  hour  and  never  received  the 
official  sanction  of  parliament.    Then,  as  now,  the  king  ruled 


8        ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


but  did  not  govern.  The  sovereign  was  expected  to  sign  every 
bill  which  had  received  the  approval  of  the  ministry  and  both 
houses  of  parliament.  Parhament,  as  has  been  already  shown, 
was  not  a  truly  representative  body,  but  was  the  instrument  for 
furthering  the  interests  of  the  country  gentry,  or  the  well-to-do 
trading  classes  of  the  towns.  In  the  course  of  time  the  king 
simply  selected  the  leader  of  the  party  in  power  in  the  House 
of  Commons  as  prime  minister,  and  he  in  turn  selected  the 
members  of  his  cabinet.  To  each  of  these  was  usually  intrusted 
an  important  department  of  government,  e.g.,  foreign  affairs, 
finance,  the  army,  navy. 

No  less  important  than  these  political  changes,  which  created 
a  government  more  liberal  than  any  on  the  continent,  was  the 
long  struggle  with  Louis  XIV,  which  began  back  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II  and  closed  in  1713.  This  forms  a  part  of  the  struggle 
for  commercial  supremacy  between  the  great  states  of  Europe 
and  will  be  described  in  detail  in  that  connection.^  By  it 
England  won  an  enviable  place  among  the  nations  of  Europe. 
She  clearly  demonstrated  her  superiority  over  the  French 
upon  the  sea  and  thereby  placed  herself  well  in  the  lead  com- 
mercially. She  also  did  much  to  safeguard  the  independence 
of  the  smaller  states  of  Europe  and  to  prevent  the  building 
up  of  a  great  French  empire  out  of  their  territories  and 
Spain's  vast  possessions. 

5.  The  Establishment  of  the  Power  of  the  Monarch  in 
France.  —  Throughout  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century  it 
was  France  who  had  been  acknowledged  as  leader  among  the 
great  states  of  Europe.  In  almost  every  particular  she  presented 
a  marked  contrast  to  her  neighbor  across  the  Channel.  Henry 
IV,  Richelieu,  Mazarin,  and  Louis  XIV  had  labored  to  exalt  the 
monarch  rather  than  the  people  to  the  highest  place  in  the 
government  and  had  succeeded  so  well  that  the  French  monarch 
could  boast  with  much  of  truth,  ''I  am  the  state."  The  reign 
of  Louis  XIV  marked  the  most  brilliant  period  in  French  his- 
1  See  Chapter  in. 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  CONDITIONS 


Louis  XIV 


Power  of 
the  King 


10     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

tory.  Not  only  was  France  feared  by  her  neighbors,  but  her 
achievements  in  art  and  in  hterature,  and  Hkewise  her  institu- 
tions, were  widely  imitated.  The  king  was  not  only  the  centre 
and  source  of  all  authority,  but  he  was  also  the  generous  patron 
of  artists  and  writers.  The  luxury  and  splendor  which  he  en- 
couraged made  France  the  home  of  beautiful  tapestries,  fine 
furniture,  and  stately  architecture.    The  ruler  was  fond  of  lik- 


The  Gallery  of  Battles  at  Versailles 
The  Palace  at  Versailles  was  the  royal  residence  of  Louis  XIV  and  his  two 
successors,  and  now  is  a  great  national  museum.  The  most  imposing  room 
in  this  wonderful  structure  is  the  Gallery  of  Battles.  The  floor,  inlaid  with 
woods  of  various  colors,  is  beautifully  poHshed.  The  roof  is  of  glass  and  costly 
gilding  sustained  by  marble  columns  in  front  of  each  of  which,  on  handsome 
pedestals,  are  portrait  busts  of  noted  generals  of  France.  The  glory  of  the 
hall  is  its  collection  of  historical  paintings  representing  the  battle-fields  of 
France,  especially  the  many  victories  of  Napoleon. 

ening  himself  to  the  rising  sun  with  the  whole  world  basking  in 
his  beneficent  rays.  Louis  XIV  placed  the  capstone  upon  the 
French  governmental  system,  finally  concentrating  in  his  own 
person  every  function  of  government  that  really  counted, — leg- 
islative, executive,  and  judicial.  No  detail  of  government  was 
too  trifling  for  his  personal  attention;  everything  must  come 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  CONDITIONS 


II 


Examples  of  Bourbon  Magnificence 
These  palace  interiors  with  their  luxurious  furnishings  belong  to^  the 
period  of  Louis  XIV  and  Louis  XV. 
these  monarchs. 


The  furniture  has  been  named  for 


12        ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Court 


The  Church 


Revocation 
of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes 


under  the  king's  eye;  every  important  document  must  bear  his 
signature. 

The  court  of  Louis  XIV  was  the  most  briUiant  in  all  Europe. 
After  building  for  himself  a  splendid  palace  at  Versailles,  he 
attracted  thither  all  the  great  nobles  of  the  realm,  making  it  a 
prime  requisite  for  political  advancement  that  they  should  grace 
his  court  by  their  presence.-  When  on  one  occasion  a  nobleman 
was  recommended  to  him  for  an  appointment,  he  made  answer, 
''I  have  not  seen  him  at  my  court."  Court  functions  of  one  sort 
or  another  took  up  the  time  of  nobles  who  otherwise  might  have 
been  plotting  against  the  government  on  their  estates  or  have 
formed  the  centre  of  various  disaffected  groups  of  subjects. 
The  king  elevated  the  most  trivial  service  rendered  to  his  person 
into  the  most  important  of  state  ceremonials,  and  there  was 
great  rivalry  among  his  courtiers  to  perform  the  most  menial 
services,  such  as  to  be  present  when  he  arose  or  retired,  holding 
perhaps  some  one  of  his  garments.  To  amuse  this  court  King 
Louis  encouraged  the  writing  of  some  of  the  finest  French  plays. 
Versailles  furnished  one  continuous  round  of  pleasure  and 
gayety  for  its  inhabitants.  The  best  of  French  art  was  lavished 
upon  its  decorations;  its  glories  were  heralded  abroad;  and  it 
soon  became  the  ambition  of  the  petty  princelings  of  Europe 
to  imitate  its  splendor  and  magnificence. 

It  was  not  only  the  political  system  which  was  completely 
under  the  thumb  of  the  king.  The  same  held  true  of  the 
church.  There  was  no  thought  of  toleration  in  France.  On 
the  contrary,  the  king  became  more  intolerant  with  the  passage 
of  time,  and  in  1685,  after  a  series  of  persecutions  known  as 
the  dragonnades,  he  wiped  from  the  statute  books  of  his  realm 
the  last  vestige  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  with  its  guarantees  to  the 
Huguenots  of  the  right  to  worship  as  they  pleased.  The  king's 
one  thought  seems  to  have  been  to  leave  France  a  unit  as  to 
its  religion  as  he  had  labored  to  make  it  a  unit  as  to  its  govern- 
ment. This  was  a  decided  step  backward  in  every  particular. 
Its  immediate  result  was  to  lose  to  France  many  of  her  best 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  CONDITIONS 


13 


UK-? 

The 
ry  th 
;das 
ant. 

^■jl 

^^1 

aZ'i? 

^H 

">  0  Q-cr 

^^^^H 

►-. "<     ft)    CD 

c/i  P  orq  tr: 

i^^^H 

f^  ^p  p 

BaS^^S 

g-g    t3j« 

HMmm 

O)  £  <-f- 

0  3  S'^ 

MPPBH 

0  C  ^  ,^ 

lmIb^I 

3  ^3  g 
b  0  p  p 

^^m 

ill.- 

1^1 

a^<  ^0 

|ffiE^/Ri 

"^^m 

yers,  e 
re  of  ta 
upholst 
figure 

BH^ 

^ 

P    ft)  'T3    W3 

BKaBI 

tabUshe 
estries. 
ry.    In 
t  the  le 

0 

GO 

11 

K'r^          P- 

X 

Si^CiV 

themsi 
In  166 
his  pict 

(—1 

< 

3  t 

"'1 

)-    to    p. 

H      ' 

ves  in 
this  e 
re  Loi 

■  ^ 

?  i 

p.  w 

0 

^  p ::? 

td 

%:  \ 

<g^S! 

§ 

K-3  3 

hd 

the 
ent 
,rep 

> 

fifteenth 
was  pure 
resented 

H 

P    \X  ci 

iJ^4k;# 

w  p  S 

Isig.  5«l 

►0  5«  3. 

yfK^^ 

tury. 
id  by 
aying 

M 

P    DhH 

B,»-»~*e 

^•1^ 

Jfi.S^cr 

r+  •-«•  n> 

<-*■ 

1  *  -• 

0  £?  x' 

mi 

nth  cen- 
reorgan- 
Gobelin 

■^^ 

^^Bin 

^ 

14       ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

citizens.  Some  fled  to  America;  others  were  welcomed  in  Eng- 
land, in  Holland,  and  in  parts  of  Germany. 

By  this  time  a  great  gulf  had  become  fixed  between  the  classes 
in  France.  Three  main  divisions  are  readily  distinguished,  the 
clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the  third  estate.  The  nobles  owed  their 
position  either  to  birth  (the  noblesse  de  Vepee)  or  service  (the  no- 
blesse de  la  robe).  Although  there  were  some  members  of  the 
hereditary  nobiUty  who  were  in  close  touch  with  the  people,  the 
great  lords,  who  held  the  highest  positions  in  the  government, 
were  far  removed  from  all  contact  with  the  people  at  large  on 
account  of  the  life  which  they  led  at  Versailles.  They  were  not 
even  in  touch  with  the  occupants  of  their  great  estates,  as  they 
seldom  visited  these  and  left  their  management  in  the  hands  of 
overseers.  Many  of  the  nobility  lived  on  the  incomes  derived 
from  pensions  granted  them  by  the  king  and  were  an  economic 
burden  upon  society.  A  great  barrier  separated  the  nobility 
from  the  third  estate.  This  class  took  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
it  was  represented  in  one  of  the  three  houses  (or  estates)  of  the 
French  Estates  General,  which  corresponded  roughly  to  the  Eng- 
lish parliament.  This  body,  however,  had  seldom  come  together; 
its  last  session  was  in  1614.  The  third  estate,  or  bourgeoisie,  as 
it  was  sometimes  called,  was  composed  of  well-to-do  business 
men,  bankers,  lawyers,  doctors  and  the  like,  many  of  whom 
filled  the  subordinate  administrative  positions  in  the  govern- 
ment, which  were  very  numerous  on  account  of  its  bureaucratic 
nature.  The  name  third  estate  was  also  applied  to  all  who  were 
not  members  of  the  nobihty  or  clergy  and  it  therefore  included 
the  peasants,  who  constituted  nearly  nine  tenths  of  the  entire 
population  and  had  no  representation  in  the  Estates  General. 
The  majority  of  these  were  without  political  rights  and  pos- 
sessed of  no  civil  standing.  Then,  too,  there  were  the  artisans 
and  workers,  —  about  a  tenth  of  the  population.  Some  of  the 
latter  were  to  be  found  among  the  slum  dwellers  of  Paris  and 
the  great  cities  and  their  lot  was  wretched  beyond  description. 

Although  the  clergy  formed  the  first  estate  in  the  Estates 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  15 

General,  their  position  is  best  understood  by  considering  their 
relation  to  the  nobiHty  and  the  common  people.  They  were 
composed  of  the  higher  and  lower  clergy.  The  higher  clergy  The  Clergy 
were  recruited  from  the  younger  sons  of  noble  families,  who  were 
given  high  positions  in  the  church  which  carried  with  them  large 
revenues.  The  actual  duties  were  in  many  cases  performed  by 
the  lower  clergy,  who  were  recruited  from  the  common  people. 
These  were  the  cures  or  parish  priests,  who  eked  out  a  precari- 
ous living  upon  their  meagre  salaries.  The  higher  clergy  in 
many  cases  frequented  the  court  to  the  neglect  of  the  spiritual 
and  material  welfare  of  those  committed  to  their  charge. 

France  owed  her  commanding  position  in  Europe  in  part  to 
the  perfection  of  her  army.     The  French  armies  of  the  time  of  The  Army 
Louis  XIV  were  the  finest  in  Europe  and  were  commanded  by  a 
group  of  brilliant  generals.     Louvois  and  Vauban,  the  one  a  LouvoIs 
war  minister,  the  other  a  great  engineer  and  student  of  defence,  ^^  Vauban 
helped  to  make  France  the  great  military  power  of  the  time, 
and  their  work  was  widely  copied. 

The  art  and  literature  of  Europe  were  long  dominated  by 
French  ideals.  The  age  of  Louis  XIV  gave  birth  to  such  writers  Literature 
as  Mohere,  the  famous  writer  of  comedy;  Racine,  the  great 
writer  of  tragedy;  Boileau,  the  critic;  La  Fontaine,  the  Aesop 
of  his  day;  the  brilliant  letter  writer,  Madame  de  Sevigne;  and 
many  others  whose  works  became  models  for  the  rest  of  Europe. 
French  art,  with  representatives  like  Claude  Lorrain,  the  land-  Art 
scape  artist;  Le  Brun,  the  well-known  decorator  of  the  palace  of 
Versailles;  and  Mansard,  whose  name  has  been  attached  to  a 
pecuhar  type  of  roof,  also  exercised  its  magic  power  over  Europe. 
"In  Uterature,"  says  Macaulay,  "France  gave  laws  to  the  en- 
tire world."  This  sort  of  supremacy  to  some  extent  compen- 
sated her  for  a  gradual  loss  of  her  poHtical  power,  for  with  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV  France  passed  into  a  period  far  less  glorious 
and  marked  by  many  more  failures  than  had  been  true  of  the 
age  of  Le  Grand  Monarque.  Louis  himself  had  failed  largely 
because  of  England's  opposition.     Although  still  counted  a 


1 6     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

power  of  the  first  rank  France  politically  was  gradually  giving 
way  to  England  and  to  other  powers  on  the  continent. 

6.   Rise  of  Russia  and  Decay  of  Sweden.  —  The  age  which 
had  witnessed  the  glories  of  the  personal  rule  of  Louis  XIV  saw 


Peter  the  Great  Studying  Ship-building 

In  1697  Peter  the  Great  visited  the  countries  of  western  Europe  to  study 
their  institutions.  Here  he  is  seen  examining  the  model  of  a  ship.  After 
studying  ship-building  he  returned  to  Russia  and  created  a  fleet. 

the  gradual  rise  of  two  new  states  in  eastern  Europe,  Russia 
Peter  the  Great  and  Prussia.  Russia  was  largely  the  creation  of  Peter  the 
Great,  who,  yielding  to  the  spell  of  western  methods  of  govern- 
ment and  western  habits  of  thinking,  tried  to  transform  his 
Oriental  country  into  an  Occidental.  It  was  a  gigantic  task 
which  he  undertook,  but  he  at  least  succeeded  in  one  thing,  and 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS 


17 


1 8     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

that  was  in  making  Russia  from  this  time  forward  a  factor  to  be 
reckoned  with  in  any  movement  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
In  his  young  manhood,  partly  as  the  result  of  travel,  Peter  came 
in  contact  with  natives  of  Germany,  Holland,  and  England  and 


Moscow 
A  view  of  modern  Moscow  from  the  Temple  of  Our  Saviour. 

so  was  not  influenced  to  any  great  extent  by  French  ideals, 
but  the  tremendous  influence  which  France  continued  to  exer- 
cise after  the  death  of  Louis  XIV  was  felt  in  Russia  in  the  reigns 
of  his  immediate  successors  and  is  another  proof  of  the  greatness 
of  the  period  of  Louis  XIV.  At  the  accession  of  Peter  the 
Great  (1682)  Russia  was  the  most  backward  of  countries,  re- 
sembling in  much  of  its  life,  customs,  and  organization,  the 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  19 

Chinese  Empire  at  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Peter  was  a 
behever  in  the  absolutist  idea  of  government,  and  in  order  to 
build  up  a  powerful  monarchy  he  found  it  necessary  to  restrict 
the  power  of  the  nobles,  as  had  been  done  in  France  in  the  days 
of  Richelieu  and  Mazarin.  No  detail  of  life  was  too  trivial  for 
the  watchful  eye  of  the  Tsar,  as  the  ruler  of  Russia  was  called; 
and  we  find  him  even  prescribing  the  cut  of  the  clothes  of  his 
people  and  forbidding  the  wearing  of  beards,  in  order  that  they 
might  in  outward  appearance  at  least  resemble  their  western 
neighbors.  The  tremendous  energy  which  marked  everything  Founding  of 
which  he  undertook  is  illustrated  in  the  building  of  St.  Peters-  ^^^°«^^ 
burg,  or  Petrograd,  as  it  is  now  called.  He  was  desirous  of 
building  himself  a  new  capital  and  selected  as  a  site  the  marshy 
district  lying  along  the  Neva  River.  It  was  an  almost  super- 
human task  to  erect  the  beautiful  city  which  commemorates 
his  name.  His  success  is  attested  by  its  broad  streets  and  fine 
monuments.  In  the  building  of  it  he  hoped  to  realize  the  more 
quickly  his  dominant  ambition  of  westernizing  his  people  by 
cutting  them  off  from  those  associations  which  suggested  their 
barbarous  past,  for  Moscow  had  long  been  the  capital  of  the 
empire.  Peter  also  set  himself  to  the  task  of  reorganizing  the  The  Amy 
Russian  army  on  western  lines  and  creating  a  navy.  This  ^^  ^*^ 
latter  effort  was  beset  with  great  difiiculties,  as  the  Russians 
had  a  dread  of  the  water  and  Russia  had  no  port  which  was 
free  from  ice  for  any  great  part  of  the  year. 

Peter  the  Great  reasoned  that  to  make  Russia  a  western 
nation  his  country  must  have  an  outlet  toward  the  west  upon 
the  Baltic,  by  which  she  would  be  in  direct  contact  with  civilized 
Europe.  In  his  efforts  to  effect  this  result,  which  he  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  important  in  connection  with  his  westernizing 
policies,  he  had  a  great  rival  to  overcome  in  the  person  of  the 
ruler  of  Sweden,  Charles  XII,  whose  one  ambition  seems  to  Charles  xn 
have  been  to  rival  the  mihtary  exploits  of  Alexander  the  ° 
Great.  A  desperate  struggle  ensued  between  the  two,  in  which, 
though   beaten   at   the  outset,   the  persistence   of   the    Tsar 


20     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Acquisitions 
of  Russia 


Russia 
and  Europe 


Brandenburg 


The  Army 


finally  triumphed,  and  he  was  ceded  a  large  area,  including 
the  provinces  of  Livonia,  Esthonia,  and  Ingria,  all  border- 
ing upon  the  Baltic.  From  this  time  forward  Sweden  steadily 
lost  ground  and  ceased  to  exercise  any  real  influence  upon  her 
neighbors.  It  was  also  a  part  of  the  plan  of  Peter  the  Great 
to  secure  for  Russia  her  present  water  front  upon  the  Black 
Sea,  but  he  was  unable  to  make  much  headway  against  the 
Turks,  who  blocked  his  path. 

Peter  the  Great  turned  over  to  his  successors  a  state  of  the 
absolutist  type,  strong  enough  and  enterprising  enough  from 
thenceforth  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  solution  of  all 
questions  of  moment  which  might  arise  in  the  west.  Russia 
had  already  cast  an  envious  eye  upon  Poland,  blocking  as  it  did 
the  most  direct  route  into  the  heart  of  western  Europe.  Poland 
was  not  only  weak  in  its  organization,  but  was  torn  asunder  by 
internal  strife. 

7.  Rise  of  Prussia. — The  other  eastern  state  now  and 
henceforth  to  be  reckoned  with  was  Prussia.  This  state  was 
gradually  beaten  into  shape  by  the  efforts  of  the  ancestors  of 
the  dynasty  which  rules  modern  Germany.  One  of  the  Electors 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  had 
been  ceded  the  territory  known  as  Prussia  (1618),  and  in  1701, 
for  certain  services  rendered  the  Emperor,  had  been  permitted 
to  assume  the  title  of  King  in  Prussia.  The  first  of  these  kings 
was  Frederick  I,  who  imitated  Louis  XIV  in  maintaining  a  luxu- 
rious court.  His  successor,  Frederick  William,  however,  prac- 
tised the  most  rigid  economy  and.  accumulated  a  considerable 
treasure  for  those  days.  This  he  left  to  his  son  at  his  death  in 
1740,  along  with  a  well-equipped  army,  which  had  been  his  chief 
joy  and  pride.  He  had  earned  the  title  of  the  Drill  Sergeant  of 
Europe  and  delighted  in  tall,  soldierly-looking  recruits  for  his 
army.  As  the  army  was  composed  of  volunteers,  recruiting 
.was  not  confined  to  Prussia  alone.  He  is  said  to  have  scoured 
Europe  in  order  to  fill  the  ranks  of  his  regiment  of  giants  with 
creditable  material.   The  army  became  the  mainstay  of  the  Prus- 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  21 

sian  government,  the  rulers  trusting  through  it  to  make  art  im- 
pression upon  their  neighbors  and  to  satisfy  their  ambitions  for 
a  larger  and  more  powerful  kingdom.  Obligatory  military  ser- 
vice was  introduced  in  1733,  and  all  recruits  were  subjected  to  a' 
rigid  discipline.  The  Prussian  system  of  training  demanded  that 
each  man  move  with  machine-like  precision  as  part  of  a  great 
organization.  "The  soldiers  were  taught  to  load  their  guns  in 
twelve  movements.  When  a  battalion  fired,  one  ought  to  see 
but  one  flash  and  hear  but  one  report."  As  the  officers  were 
drawn  from  the  ranks  of  the  nobility,  there  was  but  little  chance 
of  promotion  for  the  common  soldier.  The  officers,  however, 
were  likewise  subjected  to  thorough  drill  and  discipline,  and 
the  Prussian  army  became  in  time  the  model  for  many  of  its 
neighbors. 

The  Prussian  government  furnished  a  good  illustration  of  an  Absolutism 
administrative  system  of  the  absolutist  type.  Like  Peter  the  ^^^^g^t 
Great,  Frederick  William  claimed  the  right  to  regulate  every- 
thing. The  ruler,  however,  did  not  permit  the  whole  burden  of 
government  to  be  borne  by  the  peasant,  but  subjected  the 
nobihty  of  the  land  as  well  to  the  burden  of  taxation.  The 
interest  of  the  governed  was  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the  ruler, 
but  the  measures  enacted  by  the  royal  despot  must  at  times  have 
appeared  harsh  and  unjust. 

8.  The  Passing  of  Holland. — On  the  western  fringe  of  con- 
tinental Europe  lay  a  small  state  which  in  the  preceding  century 
and  a  half  had  occasioned  no  Httle  stir  in  the  world  at  large. 
This  collection  of  provinces  was  known  as  the  Protestant 
Netherlands,  or  Holland,  and  its  independence  had  been  tardily 
recognized  when  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  were  signed  in 
1648.  Long  before  this  time  it  had  begun  to  send  out  its 
explorers  and  traders.  Following  in  the  track  of  the  Portuguese,  Dutch  Trading 
the  Dutch  had  laid  hands  upon  many  of  the  eastern  possessions  p®"*^^''^ 
of  Portugal,  as  the  grasp  of  the  mother  country  grew  weaker  and 
weaker.  ,The  colonial  empire  which  Dutch  enterprise  created 
extended  at  one  time  from  New  Netherlands  and  Brazil  in  the 


22      ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Navigation 
Acts 


Designs  of 
Louis  XIV 
upon  Spain 


Cardinal 
Alberonl 


Western  hemisphere  to  the  shores  of  India,  the  Malay  peninsula, 
and  the  East  Indies  in  the  far  East.  The  hold  of  Holland 
weakened  in  turn,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
her  influence  among  the  states  of  Europe  had  practically  ceased; 
at  the  same  time  she  had  lost  much  of  her  trade  and  territory. 
This  was  in  part  the  result  of  hostile  English  legislation  by  which 
her  rivals  across  the  Channel  strove  with  Navigation  Acts  and 
the  like  to  wrest  from  the  Dutch  the  coveted  trade  and  territory. 
When  legislation  did  not  succeed  they  resorted  to  force,  eventu- 
ally destroying  the  Dutch  power  on  the  sea,  notably  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II,  when  New  Netherlands  was  captured  (1664). 

9.  The  Decay  and  Attempted  Revival  of  Spain.  —  Spain, 
which  had  once  been  the  terror  of  England  and  the  Protestant 
west,  had  long  ceased  to  trouble  Europe,  and  throughout  the 
seventeenth  century  had  been  blundering  along,  trying  half- 
heartedly to  retrieve  the  mistakes  of  her  past.  In  the  period 
of  Louis  XIV,  Spain's  territorial  possessions  had  been  at  the 
same  time  the  goal  and  stumbling  block  of  the  ambitions  of 
Le  Grand  Monarque.  Jealousy  and  fear  on  the  part  of  his 
neighbors,  however,  robbed  him  of  much  of  the  spoil  which  he 
counted  as  rightfully  his.  Philip  V,  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Bourbon  and  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV,  was  placed  upon 
the  Spanish  throne  as  the  result  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  and  in  any  European  difficulty  from  this  time  for- 
ward it  was  to  be  expected  that  Spain  would  be  found  on  the 
side  of  France  (sec.  32). 

With  the  coming  into  power  of  Cardinal  Alberonl  (1713- 
17 19),  Spain  was  once  more  thrust  into  prominence,  and  it 
looked  for  the  moment  as  though  she  might  shape  somewhat 
the  destinies  of  Europe,  particularly  those  of  Italy.  Alberoni 
was  an  Italian  by  birth  who  had  attained  his  position  of  eminence 
by  practising  in  turn  the  arts  of  actor,  jester,  and  chef,  and  had 
finally  brought  about  the  marriage  of  the  king  of  Spain  to  an 
Italian  princess.  His  ambition  was  to  restore  to  Spain  some 
of  her  former  power  and  greatness  and  to  drive  Austria  from 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  23 

Italy.  Although  somewhat  successful  in  lifting  his  adopted 
country  from  her  sloth,  corruption,  and  superstition,  his  care- 
fully laid  plans  came  to  naught.  Thus,  although  Spain  seemed 
to  be  "coming  back"  to  take  a  prominent  place  among  her 
neighbors,  it  soon  became  apparent  that  this  position  was  not 
to  be  maintained, 

10.  The  Great  States  about  1740. —  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  then,  the  immediate  future  of  Europe 
seemed  to  lie  in  the  hands  of  England,  France,  Russia,  and 
Prussia.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  as  a  pohtical  organization 
counted  for  comparatively  Httle  in  the  great  movements  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  This  could  not  be  said  of  Austria,  whose 
rulers  had  so  long  borne  the  empty  title  of  Emperor.  The 
activities  of  such  aggressive  sovereigns  as  Maria  Theresa  and 
Joseph  II  have  much  to  do  with  European  progress.  Each  of 
the  four  great  powers,  however,  had  its  pecuUar  weakness.  In 
England  it  was  the  temporary  dearth  of  far-sighted  men  to 
secure  and  maintain  for  her  the  position  which  she  had  won  by 
her  long  struggle  with  Louis  XIV.  French  civilization,  rather 
than  the  French  rulers,  gave  France  her  prestige.  Finally, 
Prussia  and  Russia  had  much  to  do  before  they  could  claim  the 
rank  and  place  of  great  European  powers. 

11.  The  Reform  Movement.  —  A  series  of  changes  now 
began  to  manifest  themselves  which  heralded  the  dawn  of  a  new 
era.  This  reform  movement,  as  it  might  be  called,  started 
with  a  change  along  intellectual  lines.  No  great  change  in 
government,  no  great  shifting  of  power  from  one  great  state  to 
another,  but  has  had  its  origin  in  the  mind  of  an  individual  or  a 
group  of  individuals. 

The  influence  of  ideas  upon  the  current  of  a  country's  history  Nature  of  the 
is  illustrated  in  Shakespeare,  where  he  makes  Caesar  say  of  Movement 
Cassius,   ''He  thinks  too.  much:    such   men  are  dangerous" 
(Julius  Caesar,  Act  I,  Sc.  2).    It  was  the  thmking  class  whom 
the  great  Roman  had  feared  in  his  plans  to  control  the  Roman 
world.     Europe  now  began  to  look  at  some  things  differently 


24      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Origin  of  the 
New  Ideas 


—  to  see  them  in  a  new  light.  The  rulers  and  people  of  Europe 
The  Old  Ideas  in  the  century  just  passed  had  entertained  peculiar  ideas  of  gov- 
ernment and  religion,  ideas  quite  foreign  to  those  of  the  masses 
today.  Even  their  ideas  of  how  trade  and  commerce  should 
be  carried  on  were  very  crude  from  the  standpoint  of  our 
methods  of  conducting  business.  These  were  now  beginning  to 
change  and  become  more  like  those  of  today.  The  educated, 
thinking  classes  —  the  literary  men  —  were  responsible  for  these 
changes.  As  France  had  been  a  centre  of  intellectual  activity 
(sec.  5)  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV,  it  is  natural  to  look  for  the 
origin  of  the  movement  there.  The  real  source  of  these  new 
ideas,  however,  was  not  in  France  but  in  England,  as  England 
had  in  certain  lines,  notably  in  religion  and  in  government, 
advanced  much  farther  than  the  other  states  of  Europe.  We 
find  Englishmen  beginning  to  describe  their  peculiar  form  of 
government  and  to  express  their  ideas  about  government, 
especially  as  to  the  rights  of  individuals  and  the  meaning  of 
liberty.  Their  experiences  in  trade  and  commerce,  too,  led  them 
to  conceive  new  ideas  as  to  the  meaning  of  trade  and  commerce 
to  a  nation  and  to  form  new  plans  for  advancing  these.  Intol- 
erance in  religion  and  absolutism  in  government  characterized 
almost  every  other  state  in  Europe.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV 
illustrates  these  conditions  and  shows  how  firmly  rooted  were 
these  ideas. 

12.  The  Philosophers  and  Economists. — The  men  who  first 
gave  vigorous  expression  to  these  new  ideas  were  known  as 
philosophers  and  economists.  Of  the  rise  of  the  new  science  of 
economics,  or  political  economy,  something  will  be  said  later. 
In  England,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  the  idea  of  divine  right 
and  religious  intolerance  had  already  been  dealt  a  severe  blow 
in  the  Great  Civil  War  and  in  the  Revolution  of  1688.  John 
Locke  now  appeared  (1632-1704)  to  justify  these  changes  in 
his  Letters  on  Tolerance  and  particularly  in  his  writings  on 
government.  He  maintained  that  the  government  "has  been 
formed  through  a  contract  between  the  citizens  constituting  the 


John  Locke 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  25 

nation;  they  have  made  a  covenant  with  each  other  for  their 
common  good  advantage."  There  was  no  place  in  a  govern- 
ment like  this  for  an  absolute  monarch.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  was  the  possibility  of  enjoying  a  maximum  amount  of 
personal  liberty.  Under  the  successors  of  Louis  XIV  these 
ideas  found  their  way  into  France  and  began  to  be  taken  up 
and  discussed  by  the  intellectual  classes  there,  who  were  grow- 
ing weary  of  the  inefficiency  and  intolerance  which  cursed  their 
own  land.  Voltaire  (1694-1778)  and  Montesquieu  (1689-1755), 
two  of  the  greatest  writers  of  this  time,  visited  England  Voitaire 
and  resided  there  for  a  time.  The  former,  in  his  Letters  on 
the  English  and  in  his  Philosophical  Dictionary,  attacked  the 
abuses  of  his  time  and  stirred  the  thinking  class  mightily  by  his 
criticisms.  He  made  the  church  with  its  emphasis  upon  form 
and  ceremony,  its  persecutions  and  inquisitions,  the  special 
object  of  his  attacks.  Montesquieu  was  a  great  admirer  of  Montesquieu 
the  English  system  of  government  and,  in  his  Spirit  of  the  Laws, 
gave  his  countrymen  a  fairly  accurate  description  of  the  Eng- 
lish system.  These  two  great  pioneers  were  followed  in  the 
next  generation  by  a  group  of  brilliant  pamphleteers,  novehsts, 
and  essayists,  who  criticised  right  and  left  and  demanded  the 
reform  of  existing  evils.  Rousseau  (17 12-1778)  was  one  of  the  Rousseau 
most  influential  of  these,  embodying  in  story  form  his  idea 
that  government  should  be  so  constituted  as  to  afford  the  widest 
possible  liberty  of  action  to  the  individual.  This  was  the 
novel  Emile.  Diderot  (17 13-1784)  conceived  the  idea  of  a 
Dictionary,  or  Encyclopaedia,  which  should  embody  the  sum 
total  of  human  knowledge,  and  with  the  help  of  a  brilliant  group 
of  writers  produced  a  series  of  volumes  filled  with  cutting 
criticisms  and  suggested  reforms. 

13.  Their  Influence :  The  Age  of  Enlightened  Despotism.  — 
The  brilliant,  interesting  style  of  these  writers,  and  the  various 
forms  in  which  they  put  forth  their  ideas,  in  satires,  romances, 
letters,  etc.,  gave  them  a  wide  hearing,  not  only  in  France  but 
throughout  those  parts  of  Europe  in  which  France  had  come  to 


26     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

be  so  much  admired  and  imitated.  Certain  of  these  ideas 
commended  themselves  to  some  of  the  rulers  and  statesmen  of 
the  time,  who  sought  to  put  them  into  practice.  This  effort 
The  EnUght-  g^^c  risc  to  the  so-called  Age  of  Enlightened  Despotism.  At 
ened  Despot  first  sight  it  would  sccm,  curiously  enough  from  our  modern  point 
of  view,  that  in  many  cases  the  most  despotic  rulers  were  among 
those  who  most  eagerly  accepted  these  new  ideas.  Although 
they  regarded  themselves  as  absolute  masters  in  their  respective 
countries,  they  came  to  take  a  higher  and  more  exalted  view 
of  their  position  as  rulers.  This  did  not  mean  that  they  had 
any  higher  ideals  of  serving  their  fellow  men.  .  They  saw 
rather  an  opportunity  of  breaking  some  of  the  fetters  which 
the  church  had  imposed  upon  them,  or  again  a  chance  to  im- 
prove upon  their  administrative  machinery.  The  state  was 
all  in  all  to  them;  their  subjects  were  merely  pawns  on  a 
chessboard  to  be  moved  about  at  will.  They  were  first  ser- 
vants of  the  state,  owing  a  duty  to  govern  it  along  hues  which 
made  for  its  greater  strength  and  efficiency.  They  brooked 
no  opposition  to  their  plans  and  seldom  if  ever  took  their 
subjects  into  their  confidence.  They  treated  them  rather  as 
children  who  did  not  know  what  was  for  their  best  interest. 
In  many  states,  where  the  monarch  himself  was  not  gripped  by 
Abnses  of         this  new  conception  of  government,  great  ministers  were  to 

the  Time  ,       ^  i       ,  ^     ^  -  ^  T  .1,1 

be  found  who  accepted  these  ideas  and  were  guided  by  them. 
There  existed  in  almost  every  state  on  the  continent  survivals 
of  feudalism,  cumbrous  and  inefficient  systems  of  law,  crude 
methods  of  administering  justice,  inadequate  school  facihties, 
various  restrictions  upon  the  writing  and  printing  of  books  and 
newspapers;  in  short,  innumerable  outworn  devices  for  curbing 
the  liberty  and  development  of  mankind  upon  the  poUtical, 
intellectual,  moral,  and  even  economic  side,  which  blocked  all 
true  progress. 

The  activities  of  a  single  ruler  will  illustrate  the  work 
attempted  in  this  period,  beginning  with  about  1740.  The 
experiences  of  Joseph  II,  ruler  of  Austria  (i  765-1 790),  might  be 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS 


27 


taken  as  typical  of  those  of  his  fellow-workers,  and  the  list  of 
reforming  rulers  and  ministers  would  include  Frederick  the 
Great  of  Prussia,  Catherine  II  of  Russia,  and  less  known  but 
interesting  exponents  of  these  ideas  in  Spain,  Denmark,  Portugal, 
and  in  the  small  states  of  Italy.  Frederick  the  Great  once  said 
of  Joseph  II,  ''He  always  took 
the  second  step  before  he  had 
taken  the  first."  Some  authori- 
ties maintain  that  he  sincerely 
loved  his  people,  but  he  rushed 
into  one  project  after  the  other 
for  their  improvement  without 
allowing  time  for  his  subjects  to 
recover  from  the  bewilderment 
and  consternation  with  which 
they  beheld  the  disappearance 
of  many  of  their  cherished 
ideals  and  customs.  He  sup- 
pressed those  religious  orders 
which  he  considered  a  burden 
upon  his  people;  reformed  the     " 

educational  system,  taking  from  the  church  its  monopoly  of  edu- 
cation; abolished  the  death  penalty,  save  for  offences  against 
the  state;  abolished  serfdom  in  many  of  his  provinces;  and 
sought  to  unify  his  great  empire  as  to  taxation  and  adminis- 
tration. Much  of  his  work,  however,  died  with  him.  He  made 
the  great  mistake  of  trying  "to  hustle"  his  people,  such  as  that 
against  which  KipUng  later  warned  his  own  countrymen  in  their 
plans  for  India. 

Not  only  were  serfdom  and  slavery  abohshed,  as  in  Denmark 
and  Portugal;  the  laws  codified,  as  in  Prussia  and  in  Russia; 
universities  founded,  cities  erected,  freedom  of  the  press  encour- 
aged, road-making  and  harbor  improvement  undertaken,  but 
these  reforming  rulers  and  administrators  labored  zealously  to 
curtail  the  power  of   the  church  by  depriving  the  Jesuits  of 


Catherine  The  Great 


Catherine  II 


The 
Bureaucracy 


A  Preparation 
for  Modem  Life 


28     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

many  of  their  powers  and  privileges  and  by  dealing  a  final  blow 
at  the  nefarious  system  of  the  Inquisition.  Catherine  II  and 
Frederick  II  prided  themselves  on  the  friendship  of  the  leading 
French  advocates  of  these  reforms  and  maintained  a  voluminous 
correspondence  with  the  learned  men  of  the  time.  In  1771 
Catherine  II  sent  the  German  philosopher  Grimm  the  following 
report  of  her  accomplishments: 

Governments  set  up  according  to  the  new  form 29 

Towns  established  and  built 144 

Conventions  and  treaties  concluded    , 30 

Victories  won 78 

Memorable  edicts  bearing  upon  law  or  establishment.'  .    .   88 
Edicts  for  the  relief  of  the  people 123 

Total 492  1 

Two  important  results  of  this  manifold  activity  are  to  be  noted. 
Much  of  the  work  done  was  premature  and  did  not  endure. 
The  rulers  who  became  the  centre  and  source  of  these  under- 
takings were  of  necessity  forced  to  organize  their  governments 
on  the  bureaucratic  model,  that  is,  to  employ  men  to  carry  out 
their  undertakings.  These  in  turn,  because  of  the  amount  of 
detail  involved  by  their  tasks,  had  to  maintain  a  host  of  clerks 
and  build  up  a  complicated  machine  loaded  down  with  a  vast 
amount  of  red  tape.  By  their  efforts,  however,  these  reforming 
rulers  prepared  the  way  for  the  final  great  change  from  mediaeval 
conditions  of  living  to  our  modern  ways  of  doing  things.  In 
fact  Europe  stood  upon  the  threshold  of  modern  development, 
as  will  be  more  clearly  seen  when  we  examine  the  great  eco- 
nomic changes  which  began  to  sweep  these  countries. 


SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND   QUESTIONS   FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 


I.   Comment  upon  the  description  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  that  it 

was  neither  "Holy,  Roman,  nor  an  Empire."     2.   Give  the  terms  of  the 

Declaration  of  Breda.     3.   Explain  the  origin  of  the  terms  "petitioners" 

and  "abhorrers."    4.   Describe  what  was  done  to  strengthen  the  French 

^  Quoted  in  Seignobos,  Contemporary  Civilization,  p.  82. 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  29 

monarchy  by  Henry  IV,  Richelieu,  and  Mazarin.  5.  What  were  the  "dragon- 
nades?  "  6.  Under  what  circumstances  had  previous  meetings  of  the  Estates 
General  been  held?  7.  Give  a  brief  characterizing  statement  of  the  work  of 
the  artists  and  authors  mentioned  in  this  section.  8.  Describe  Peter  the 
Great's  visit  to  Western  European  countries,  and  estimate  its  effects  on  his 
later  career.  9.  Review  the  history  of  the  rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 
10.  Describe  the  loss  of  New  Netherlands  by  Holland.  11.  Give  brief 
character  sketches  of  Locke,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu,  and  Rousseau. 
12.  Give  instances  of  the  policy  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  Catherine  the 
Great  as  benevolent  despots.  13.  How  did  these  rulers  prepare  the  way 
for  the  final  change  from  mediaeval  to  modem  conditions?  14.  Discuss  the 
beginnings  of  reform  in  the  punishment  of  crime. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  The  Establishment  of  Constitutional  Government  in  England. 

1.  The  state  of  England  in  1685.     (Macaulay)  Tuell  and  Hatch, 

Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  286-309. 

2.  The  England  of  Queen  Anne.     (Morris)  Ihid.,  pp.  335-44. 

3.  The   Stuart   restoration.     Larson,  Short   History  of  England, 

pp.  374-96. 

4.  The  Whig  revolution.      Ihid.,  pp.    397-415.      Hayes,  Modern 

Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  286-90. 

5.  England  and  Louis  XIV.     Larson,  pp.  416-36. 

6.  The  rule  of  the  Whigs.     Ihid.,  pp.  437-54. 

7.  Walpole  and  his  system.     Beard,  English  Historians  (Morley), 

pp.  466-77. 
11.  The  Establishment  of  the  Power  of  the  Monarchy  in  France. 

1.  France  before  Louis  XIV.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of 

Modem  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  4-6.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  235-8. 

2.  Louis  XIV.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  6-10. 

3.  Reforms  of   Colbert.     Ihid.,  pp.    10-3.     Johnson,   Enlightened 

Despot,  pp.  13-9.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  238-40. 

4.  Europe  and  Louis  XIV.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  14-33- 

Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  242-8. 
III.  The  Rise  of  Russia  and  Prussia  until  the  Death  of  Frederick 
the  Great. 

1.  Peter  the  Great  plans  to  make  Russia  a  European  power.    Rob- 

inson and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  50-5.     Seignobos,  Contemporary 
Civilization,  pp.  17-28.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  369-79. 

2.  Rise  of  Prussia.     Robnson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  55-60. 

3.  Frederick  the  Great  and  Maria  Theresa.     Ihid.,  pp.  60-8. 

4.  Germany   as   it   was   in    1740.     Priest,   Germany    since    1740, 

pp.  i-io. 

5.  Frederick  and  Germany  in  time  of  peace.    Ihid.,  pp.  23-34. 

6.  The  rise  of  the  Prussian  monarchy.     Henderson,  Short  History 

of  Germany,  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-43. 


30     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

rV.  The.  Philosophers  and  Economists. 

I  Voltaire,  Diderot,  Montesquieu,  Rousseau,  Beccaria,  Turgot, 
Adam  Smith.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  167-83. 
Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  419-21. 

2.  Voltaire.    Lowell,  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution,     pp.  51-70. 

3.  Montesquieu.    Ibid.,  pp.  126-54. 

4.  The  Encyclopaedia.    Ihid.,  pp.  243-61. 

5.  Rousseau.    Ihid.,  pp.  274-322.    Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  422-5. 
V.  The  Age  of  Enlightened  Despotism. 

1.  The  reforms  of  Frederick  II.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp. 

184-7.    Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  441-3- 

2.  Catherine  II.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  p.  443.     Robinson   and   Beard, 

Vol.  I,  pp.  187-8. 

3.  Joseph  II.    Ihid.,  pp.  189-90.     Seignobos,  pp.  76-80;  Johnson, 

Chapter  X.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  445-8. 

4.  Pombal  in  Portugal.     Seignobos,  pp.  83-6. 

Source  Studies 

1.  The  Declaration  of  Breda.    Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History, 

pp.  505-7. 

2.  The    Bill    of  Rights.     Ihid.,  pp.    545-7;    HiU,  Liberty  Documents, 

Chapter  IX. 

3.  Richelieu  and  his  policy.     Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History, 

Vol.  II,  pp.  268-72. 

4.  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.    /&i</.,  pp.  287-93. 

5.  Peter  the  Great  and  his  policy.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings  m 

Modern  European  History,  Vol.  I,  pp.  57-63. 

6.  Bossuet's  work  on  kingship.     Ihid.,  pp.  5-8. 

7.  Saint  Simon's  portrait  of  Louis  XIV.     Ihid.,  pp.  8-10. 

8.  Comments  of  Frederick  the  Great  on  various  petitions.    Ihid.,  pp.  205-8. 

9.  Voltaire  on  Francis  Bacon.     /6/<f.,  pp.  179-82. 

10.  Montesquieu's  theory  of  the  state.     Ihid.,  pp.  191-2. 

11.  Rousseau's  fimile.     Review  the  book. 

12.  Beccaria's  views  on  crime  and  punishment.     Robinson  and  Beard, 

Readings,  Vol.  I,  pp.  193-6. 

13.  Diderot  and  the  encyclopaedists.     Ihid.,  pp.  185-8. 

14.  Frederick  the  Great's  views  as  to  the  king's  duties.    Ihid.,  pp.  202-5. 

15.  Impressions  of  Catherine  II.    Ihid.,  pp.  210-3. 

16.  Joseph  II's  ideas  of  government.    /6J^.,  pp.  213-7. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  On  an  outline  map  show  the  growth  of  the  Russian  Empire  in  Europe. 
2.  Of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  to  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great.  3.  On 
an  outline  map  of  Italy  show  the  transfers  of  territory  in  1713,  1720,  1738. 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  31 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Europe  about  1740,  pp.  130-1. 
The  growth  of  Russia  in  Europe,  pp.  138-9. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  The  growth  of  Bran- 
denburg-Prussia, p.  20.  Growth  of  the  Hapsburg  dominions  (Austria), 
p.  21.  Dutch  colonial  empire  in  seventeenth  century,  p.  38.  The  Dutch 
in  America,  p.  42. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  France  from  the  Reformation  to 
the  Revolution,  p.  20.  Europe  after  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  p.  21;  Growth 
of  Prussia,  p.  22;  Decline  of  Sweden,  p.  23. 

Bibliography 

Beard.     Introduction  to  the  English  Historians.    Macmillan. 

Che3mey.    Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 

Guedalla.     Partition  of  Europe,  1715-1815.     Oxford  University  Press. 

Hayes,  The  Political  and  Social   History  of  Modern  Europe,  Volume  I, 

Macmillan. 
Henderson.     Short  History  of  Germany.     (Two  volumes  in  one)  Macmillan. 
Hill.     Liberty  Documents.    Longmans. 

Johnson.    Age  of  Enlightened  Despot,  1660-17 8g.     Macmillan. 
Larson.    Short  History  of  England.    Holt. 
Longman.     Frederick  the  Great.    Longmans. 
Lowell.     The  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution.     Houghton  MifBin. 
Priest.     Germany  since  1740.     Ginn. 

Robinson.     Readings  in  European  History,  Volume^II.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe.    Volume  I.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  Vol.  I.   Ginn. 
Rousseau,  Emile.     Heath. 

Seignobos.     Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 
Tuell  and  Hatch.    Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 


CHAPTER  II 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL   CONDITIONS   IN   EUROPE 
IN    THE    EARLY    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY 

14.   The  Guild  System.  —  In  order  to  understand  the  con- 
dition of  industry  in  Europe  in  the  early  eighteenth  century, 
before  the  changes  referred  to  in  the  preceding  chapter,  it  is 
necessary  to  review  the  part  taken  by  the  guilds  in  manufactur- 
The  Guild         ing.   The  oldest  form  of  the  guild  was  the  guild  merchant,  formed 
Merchant  ^^  ^j^^^^  engaged  in  trade.     The  members  of  these  guilds  en- 

joyed certain  privileges,  such  as  exemption  from  some  forms  of 
taxation  and  the  sole  right  to  deal  in  particular  articles,  and 
they  usually  controlled  the  town  government.  When  organ- 
ized for  political  purposes,  the  prominent  merchants  formed 
what  is  called  a  commune  and  were  able  to  demand  a  town  char- 
ter from  the  lord  on  whose  land  the  town  was  situated.  Thus 
many  rights  of  self-government  were  won  for  the  towns  by 
these  men,  who  had  banded  themselves  together  primarily  in 
the  interests  of  their  business. 

In  later  mediaeval  times  the  guild  merchant  dechned  in  power, 

and  the  artisans  in  particular  trades  organized  similar  associa- 

The  Craft  Ouiid  tions  known  as  craft  guilds.     These  resembled  our  trade  unions 

in  that  they  were  formed  to  promote  particular  industries  by 

fixing    prices    and    maintaining    standards    of    excellence    in 

workmanship;  but  they  differed  widely  from  the  unions  in  that 

The  Craft  they  Contained  both  employers  and  employees.     The  guild  had 

Tr"a"d*e  Uru^*      ^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^  Craftsman  should  labor*  just  as  earnestly  for  the 

good  repute  of  his  craft  as  for  his  own  advancement.    Typical 

guilds  were  those  of  the  weavers,  dyers,  furriers,  masons,  and 

goldsmiths. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       33 

The  chief  functions  of  the  craft  guild  were  to  protect  the  trade,  Purposes  and 
to  standardize  production,  to  prevent  fraud,  and  to  create  a  organization  of 
monopoly,  that  is,  to  regulate  the  price  of  the  articles  manu- 
factured by  the  guild.     For  example,  none  but  members  of  the 
goldsmiths'  guild  were  allowed  to  work  in  metal  in  a  town,  and 
definite  rules  for  the  manufacture  of  golden  chains,  rings,  etc., 
insured   the  production  of  articles  of  standard  fineness  and 
workmanship.     Severe  penalties  awaited  the  dishonest  manu- 
facturer.    The  craft  was  protected  from  untrained  workers  by 
rules  governing  the  length  of  apprenticeship  before  admittance 
into  the  privileges  of  the  guild.     There  were  three  grades  of  Grades  of 
workmen:    the  apprentice,   the  journeyman,  and  the  master  ^o^'™**" 
workman.     After  an  apprenticeship  of  from  three  to  ten  years, 
the  workman  entered  the  grade  of  journeyman.     He  was  then 
sent  forth  from  his  own  shop  to  visit  those  of  other  master  work- 
men to  study  their  methods  and  designs.     After  a  suitable 
preparation,  if  the  masters  of  his  craft  were  convinced  of  his 
fitness,  he  might  set  up  a  shop  of  his  own  and  employ  other 
apprentices  and  journeymen.    He  then  became  a  master  work- 
man. 

The  rule  governing  the  length  of  service  necessary  before  Advantages  and 
admittance  into  all  the  rights  of  the  guild  tended  to  make  well-  J^J^^^^^ 
trained  and  careful  workmen,  but  at  the  same  time  it  doubtless   System 
discouraged  many  from  attempting  to  improve  their  condition. 
The  rule  requiring  a  standardization  of  manufacturing  raised  the 
general  quality  above  what  it  would  have  been  without  the  rule, 
yet  it  discouraged  improvements  in  methods  of  work  or  in  form 
of  design.     An  important  influence  was  exerted  by  the  guilds 
over  the  behavior  of  their  members,  and  thus  the  guilds  were  a 
factor   for   nobler   living.     The   guilds   also   provided   against 
sickness  and  looked  after  the  widows  and  orphans  of  deceased 
craftsmen.     Perhaps  the  greatest  service  rendered  by  the  guilds 
was  the  added  strength  given  the  cause  of  town  liberty  by  these 
groups  of  men  who  had  learned  to  work  together  in  a  common 
cause. 


34     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Control 
of  Wages 


Debasing 
the  Currency 


Confiscation  of 
Guild   Property 


Monopolies 


15.  Government  Interference  witjh  and  Regulation  of  Indus- 
try.—  In  addition  to  the  control  exercised  by  the  craft  guild, 
industry  for  some  centuries  past  had  been  subjected  to  strict 
government  control  and  regulation.  This  is  best  illustrated  in 
France  and  England,  for  with  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  these 
nations  began  to  concern  themselves  with  industrial  conditions. 
As  early  as  13  51  England  had  its  Statute  of  Laborers,  fixing 
wages  where  they  had  been  before  the  Black  Death.  This 
law  was  followed  by  others  of  a  similar  nature  and  from  1389 
to  181 1  "wages  were  alternately  fixed  by  acts  of  parhament 
and  summary  decisions  of  justices."  ^ 

A  governmental  practice  which  seriously  interfered  with  in- 
dustry and  trade  was  that  of  debasing  the  currency.  This  up- 
set all  business  and  made  it  difficult  for  employer  and  employee 
to  adjust  themselves  to  the  changing  conditions.  This  practice, 
however,  gradually  died  out  in  England  with  the  opening  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  but  on  the  continent  it  continued  even 
into  the  eighteenth  century.  In  France  the  practice  was  abol- 
ished in  1726  during  the  ministry  of  Cardinal  Fleury. 

As  time  passed  the  craft  guild  became  the  object  of  govern- 
ment attack.  This  began  during  the  Reformation  period,  under 
the  Tudors  in  England.  The  guilds  at  this  time  owned  con- 
siderable property,  some  of  which  had  been  left  them  by  former 
members,  on  condition  that  they  would  always  maintain  a 
priest  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  conduct  religious  services 
for  the  benefit  of  the  soul  of  the  one  who  had  made  the  gift. 
Now  these  guild  lands  came  under  the  condemnation  of  the 
reforming  ministers  of  the  Tudors  and  were  confiscated  to  the 
crown.  Deprived  of  their  extensive  real  estate  and  stripped 
of  their  religious  character,  the  guilds  struggled  on  with  con- 
stantly decreasing  strength  and  effectiveness.  Industry  was 
not  only  handicapped  by  legislation  of  this  character,  but  by 
the  grant  of  special  privileges  or  monopolies.     During  the  same 

*  See  Bland,  English  Economic  History:  Select  Documents,  pp.  313- 
362,  543-616. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       35 

period  in  England,  an  important  economic  revolution  was  all 
but  completed  whereby  England  changed  from  a  wool-exporting 
to  a  wool-manufacturing  country.  No  longer  shipping  her  wool 
to  the  Flemish  towns,  she  manufactured  it  at  home.  Particular 
towns  made  great  efforts  to  secure  the  sole  right  to  make  certain 
kinds  of  commodities.  The  EngUsh  rulers,  for  a  compensation, 
granted  such  monopoHes  to  certain  towns,  as  Worcester  and 
York,  and  this  practice  tended  naturally  to  retard  the  growth  of 
manufactures  elsewhere  in  England. 

16.  Changes  in  the  Guild  System.  —  At  the  same  time 
marked  changes  appeared  in  the  conditions  of  manufacturing. 
The  old-time  guild  structure  took  on  new  forms;  industries 
formerly  peculiar  to  certain  towns  spread  out  into  country 
districts,  while  at  the  same  time  these  towns  lost  their  pre- 
eminence in  trade.  Instead  of  a  definite  progress  from  appren-  changes  in 
tice  to  master  craftsman,  many  artisans  continued  permanently  Organization 
to  occupy  subordinate  positions  in  the  craft  with  no  hope  of  ad- 
vancement. This  was  due  in  part  to  the  selfish  poUcy  of  the 
masters  in  the  craft,  who  were  unwilling  to  grant  to  their  em- 
ployees that  share  in  the  profits  of  production  to  which  admis- 
sion into  all  the  privileges  of  the  craft  would  entitle  them. 
Then,  too,  as  time  passed  some  such  measures  seemed  necessary 
to  limit  competition.  Another  cause  was  the  lack  of  sufficient 
capital  or  ambition  on  the  part  of  the  employees.  Guilds 
within  guilds  now  appeared,  such  as  "yeomen"  or  "journey- 
men guilds,"  which  lacked  the  general  control  over  the  trade 
possessed  by  the  older  guilds,  but  yet  were  able  to  control 
the  rates  of  wages  and  conditions  of  labor  to  some  extent. 
The  wealthier  masters  donned  suits  of  livery  to  distinguish 
themselves  from  less  fortunate  employers,  and  thus  a  class 
distinction  arose  within  the  ranks  of  the  master  workmen. 
The  members  of  the  "Livery  Companies"  ceremonially  greeted  The  Livery 
important  personages  on  their  entry  into  the  town,  and  gave  °" 
a  touch  of  dignified  lustre  to  great  functions.  Nor  did  all  the 
members  in  livery  control  the  affairs  of  the  guild;  these  came  to 


of  Cloth 


36     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY     * 

be  administered  by  a  Court  of  Assistants,  consisting  of  a  small 
group  of  wardens  and  other  officials,  who  were  at  first  elected 
at  large  from  the  members  of  the  guild.  After  a  time,  however, 
vacancies  in  this  board  of  control  were  filled  by  the  Court  of 
Assistants,  and  thus  the  guilds  came  to  be  dominated  by  a 
small,  self-perpetuating  group,  whose  policy  was  aristocratic 
and  narrow. 

17.  The  Domestic  System  and  the  Germination  of  the 
Modern  Factory. — The  rigorous  laws  against  engaging  in  man- 
ufacturing in  a  town  without  permission  of  the  guild  of  that 
particular  craft  brought  forth  a  new  form  of  organization  of 
industry  which  is  known  as  the  "domestic  system."  A  good 
example  of  this  is  found  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing.  A 
group  of  merchants  appeared,  known  as  "clothiers  or  merchant 
clothiers."  Possessing  a  certain  amount  of  capital,  they  pur- 
Manufacture  chased  the  raw  material  and  distributed  it  among  spinners, 
weavers,  and  other  craftsmen,  paying  them  for  the  services 
which  they  rendered  in  connection  with  the  various  processes 
of  cloth  making.  They  also  supplied  in  some  cases  the  looms. 
The  finished  product  was  disposed  of  by  the  clothiers,  who 
thus  were  a  new  kind  of  employers,  hiring  master  workmen  to 
work  for  them  for  a  wage,  much  as  a  general  contractor  today 
distributes  by  sub-contract  the  various  portions  of  his  con- 
tracts. There  were  also  spinners  and  weavers  who  owned  their 
own  looms  and  supplied  their  own  wool,  disposing  of  the  fin- 
ished product  in  the  larger  towns  at  periodical  fairs  or  markets. 
This  system  of  manufacturing  threatened  the  control  over  each 
industry  exercised  by  the  guilds,  so  it  was  forced  by  their 
opposition  to  spread  out  into  the  rural  regions  where  the  guilds 
had  no  authority.  The  workmen  engaged  in  this  system  of 
manufacture  no  longer  lived  in  the  towns,  but  in  small  villages 
near  enough  to  the  larger  towns  to  enable  them  to  keep  in 
touch  with  the  merchant  clothier  or  to  take  their  wares  to  the 
market  or  fair  in  these  towns.  The  "manufacturer"  was,  Kt- 
erally,  the  man  who  worked  with  his  own  hands  in  his  own 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS        37 


Industry  before  the  Industrial  Revolution 
Hogarth,  the  engraver,  in  these  two  pictures  depicts  the  interior  of  a 
manufacturing  plant  before  the  industrial  revolution. 


38     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Defoe's 
Description 


Early 
Capitalists 


cottage.  Whether  he  happened  to  be  a  merchant  clothier  or 
simply  an  employee,  he  w^  entirely  independent  of  the  restric- 
tions on  trade  imposed  by  the  guilds.  There  was  scarcely  a 
worker  who  did  not  have  land  of  his  own  from  which  he  derived 
a  part  of  his  hving,  and  in  many  cases  he  was  possessed  of  both 
land  and  capital.  Defoe,  the  author  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  writ- 
ing in  1725,  gives  us  this  description  of  the  domestic  system. 
The  land  near  Halifax  was  "divided  into  small  enclosures  from 
two  to  six  or  seven  acres  each,  seldom  more,  every  three  or 
four  pieces  of  land  had  an  house  belonging  to  them,  .  .  .  hardly 
an  house  standing  out  of  a  speaking  distance .  from  another. 
.  .  .  We  could  see  at  every  house  a  tenter  ^  and  on  almost 
every  tenter  a  piece  of  cloth.  .  .  .  Every  clothier  keeps  one 
horse,  at  least,  to  carry  his  manufactures  to  the  market;  and 
every  one,  generally,  keeps  a  cow  or  two  or  more  for  his  family. 
.  .  .  The  houses  are  full  of  lusty  fellows,  some  at  the  dye-vat, 
some  at  the  looms,  others  dressing  the  cloths;  the  women  and 
children  carding  or  spinning,  being  all  employed  from  the 
youngest  to  the  oldest.  .  .  .  Not  a  beggar  to  be  seen  nor  an 
idle  person." 

The  striking  characteristic  of  the  domestic  system  which 
distinguished  it  from  the  guild  system  was  that  in  the  course  of 
time  the  raw  material  was  no  longer  owned  by  the  workmen,  but 
by  the  employer,  who  assumed  all  the  risks  of  manufacture  and 
whose  profits  were  measured  by  his  business  ability.  The  em- 
ployer was  no  longer  the  master  craftsman,  concerned  equally 
with  his  apprentices  in  the  small  details  of  their  craft,  but  the 
far-sighted  manufacturer,  who  weighed  the  home  and  foreign 
market  and  sold  his  wares  wherever  the  greatest  profits  could 
be  secured,  as  does  the  capitalist  manufacturer  of  today. 

18.  Domestic  Trade :   Its  Nature  and  Importance.  —  Trade, 

like  industry,  was  still  suffering  from  various  handicaps  which 

had  been  imposed  upon  it  by  government  or  custom.     Each 

town  provided  a  market-place  for  the  sale  of  all  commodities 

^  A  machine  or  frame  for  stretching  cloth. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS      39 

brought  within  its  walls.  Duties  were  laid  on  manufactured 
articles  brought  into  this  market  for  sale,  and  additional  fees 
were  charged  merchants  for  the  privilege  of  exposing  their  The  Market 
wares  in  the  town.  These  fees,  called  octroi,  are  collected  to 
this  day  in  some  European  cities,  and  in  America  peddlers  and 
hucksters  must  pay  a  license  tax  to  carry  on  their  trade.  Our 
corporation  tax  is  probably  the  evolution  of  the  same  principle. 
Whenever  there  was  a  scarcity  of  the  supply  of  any  commodity, 
an  embargo,  or  prohibition  to  export  the  commodity,  was  usually 
enforced  by  the  town.  Townsmen  were  forbidden  to  buy  up  Restrictions 
larger  amounts  of  goods  than  they  needed;  merchants  were  °° '^'■**^® 
closely  supervised;  and  their  weights  and  measures  were  at  all 
times  subject  to  inspection.  The  size  of  a  loaf  of  bread  was 
fixed  by  law,  and  maximum  prices  were  established  for  most 
of  the  necessities  of  life.  Agriculture  rather  than  trade  was 
still  the  principal  occupation.  Foreign  trade  was  in  its  in- 
fancy. The  regulation  of  all  business  by  government  action 
was  the  accepted  thing. 

Trading  operations  were  still  further  extended  through  the 
fairs,  which  dated  back  to  the  Middle  Ages.  These  expanded  Fairs 
markets,  which  collected  together  buyers  and  sellers  from  a 
widely  extended  area  in  easily  accessible  towns  and  at  con- 
venient times  of  the  year,  were  still  to  be  found  at  Stourbridge, 
near  Cambridge,  and  Winchester  in  England.  In  some  respects 
they  were  similar  to  the  county  and  state  fairs  so  familiar  to 
Americans.  Merchants  gathered  and  exhibited  their  wares  in 
temporary  booths  for  a  week  or  two,  sometimes  longer.  The 
little  town  was  surrounded  by  a  palisade,  and  the  entrance  was 
watched  to  prevent  unlicensed  venders  from  entering.  Then, 
as  now,  side-shows  were  very  much  in  evidence,  as  were  also 
actors  and  clowns,  trained  animals,  and  freaks,  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  the  people  who  came  together.  Aside  from  the  actual  Social  influence 
trading  done,  the  fairs  exerted  considerable  social  influence. 
They  were  broadening,  too,  in  that  they  brought  men  from 
different  countries  together,  and  thus  an  exchange  of  ideas  as 


40      ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

well  as  of  merchandise  was  possible.  The  fairs  were  often  under 
the  protection  of  a  neighboring  lord,  who  counted  much  upon 
the  fees  which  he  collected  from  the  merchants,  and  for  this 
reason  granted  them  unusual  privileges.  Special  courts  were 
set  up  to  administer  merchant  law  in  all  disputes  between 
traders.  These  were  known  as  Courts  of  Pie-Powder,  from  the 
French  pied-potidreux,  meaning  dusty-footed.  These  travelling 
merchants,  or  dusty-foots,  as  they  were  often  called,  could  appear 
before  these  courts  and  seek  immediate  redress  of  injustice. 
Ohver  Goldsmith,  in  his  ''Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  pubHshed  in 
1766,  gives  some  interesting  references  to  these  fairs. 

19.  Trade  Routes  and  Transportation  Facilities.  —  The 
merchant  who  was  interested  in  taking  advantage  of  distant 
markets  labored  under  many  disadvantages  and  was  put  to 
many  serious  inconveniences  in  transporting  his  wares.  There 
was  first  of  all  the  problem  presented  by  the  roads  and  high- 
ways, which  varied  greatly  in  passability.  Even  though  the  old 
Roman  high-roads,  sixty-four  feet  wide,  were  still  in  use,  they 
were  too  badly  worn  and  too  few  to  meet  the  needs  of  com- 
merce. Such  other  roads  as  existed  were  maintained  by  the  local 
authorities  and  ranged  from  bridle  paths  to  wagon  roads  of 
eight  and  sixteen  feet  and  highways  of  thirty- two  feet  in  width; 
but  these  were  in  such  bad  repair  that  wagons  were  Uttle  used. 
Most  goods  were  transported  on  the  backs  of  pack-animals,  a 
score  of  miles  being  a  good  day's  journey.  Many  travellers  lost 
their  possessions  and  even  their  lives  in  dangerous  pitfalls.  The 
splendid  bridges  built  by  the  Romans  had  fallen  into  ruin,  and 
their  places  were  taken  by  temporary  and  unsatisfactory  wooden 
structures,  by  ferries,  or  by  fords.  It  was  cheaper  to  transport 
goods  by  boat  on  the  many  navigable  rivers,  even  though  the 
distance  was  twice  as  great  as  by  a  direct  land  route.  Highway 
robberies  were  frequent;  and  heavy  tolls  were  charged  by  the 
lords  of  the  lands  through  which  the  merchant  found  it  necessary 
to  transport  his  wares.  If  a  break-down  occurred  on  land,  or 
a  wreck  on  water,  the  goods  being  transported  were  forfeited  to 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS  4; 


■  /*«% 


^^ 


^   mj'^^Sfe^. 


42     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

the  lord  of  the  place  where  the  accident  happened.  Perishable 
goods  often  spoiled  in  transit. 

At  sea  the  limit  of  voyages  was  set  by  the  small  size  of  the  ships 
and  their  consequent  inabiUty  to  stand  up  under  any  but  the 
most  favorable  conditions  of  wind  and  wave.  Ships  always 
sailed  in  fleets  for  better  protection  against  pirates,  and  as  it  was 
necessary  to  wait  for  the  formation  of  such  fleets,  goods  were 
often  much  delayed  in  transit.  There  was  always  the  tempta- 
tion before  the  skippers  of  the  larger  merchant  ships  to  turn 
buccaneer  and  seize  the  cargoes  of  smaller  crafts.     Nor  was  it 

Piracy  Considered  entirely  criminal,  as  privateering  was  the  rule  rather 

than  the  exception.  From  the  days  of  the  Vikings  to  the  Free- 
booters of  the  Spanish  Main,  commerce  by  sea  was  crippled  in 
every  way. 

20.  Banking  Facilities.  —  By  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  a  long  step  had  been  taken  towards  modern  methods  of 
carrying  on  business.     This  was  to  be  seen  in  the  use  of  credit 

The  Goldsmiths  and  the  part  played  by  the  banks.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
the  goldsmiths  were  the  principal  bankers  because  of  the  security 
their  strong  boxes  afforded  the  merchant  with  surplus  capital. 
They  paid  their  depositors  six  per  cent  interest  and  loaned  the 
money  to  merchants  or  to  the  government  at  rates  varying  from 
eight  to  ten  per  cent.  These  goldsmith  bankers  were  respon- 
sible for  the  custom  of  paying  by  check,  and  they  also  dis- 
counted notes.  In  1694  a  group  of  financiers  received  a 
charter  from  the  English  government  to  estabHsh  an  institu- 

The  Bank         tion  known  as  the  Bank  of  England.     England  was  at  that 
"^^"  time  looking  about  for  a  satisfactory  method  of  financing  her 

foreign  wars,  and  these  men  agreed  to  lend  her  £1,200,000, 
on  which  the  government  promised  to  pay  an  annual  interest 
of  8J  per  cent.  They  were  also  permitted  to  carry  on  a 
general  banking  business  with  private  concerns.  The  guaran- 
teed income  of  £100,000  from  the  government  enabled  the 
Bank  of  England  from  the  very  beginning  to  lend  large  sums 
of  money  to  industry.     The  bank  also  furnished  an  attractive 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS 


43 


44       ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

and  secure  investment  for  merchants  with  surplus  capital.  By 
the  sale  of  bonds  through  the  bank,  it  has  been  possible  ever 
since  this  time  for  the  bank  to  secure  at  any  time  funds  for 
the  British  government.  As  the  chief  danger  of  banking  is 
the  attempt  to  secure  a  large  line  of  credit  on  Httle  capital,  it 
was  natural  to  expect  that  this  would  be  attempted  in  the 
early  days  of  banking,  and  so  trade  suffered  from  over-specula- 
tion and  financial  crises,  or  hard  times. 

21.  The  Stock  Exchange.  —  Business  had  become  so  large 
by  this  time  that  places  of  exchange  had  become  necessary, 
where  those  with  capital  to  invest  could  purchase-  shares  in 
great  financial  undertakings.  In  the  larger  cities  of  Europe 
stock  exchanges  were  established  for  this  purpose.  Many  wild 
and  unstable  schemes  were  brought  forward.  An  English  com- 
pany was  chartered  in  171 1  to  carry  on  trade  with  the  South 
Sea  and  the  West  Indies,  and  to  loan  money  to  the  govern- 
ment.    Its  shares  rose  to  almost  fabulous  values  within  a  few 

The  South         months;  then  the  South   Sea  Bubble  burst.     Investors  real- 
Sea  Bubble        j^^j  ^y^^^  ^-^^^  j^^^  invested  money  which   they  never  would 

get  back;  they  began  a  hasty  sale  of  their  holdings,  and  the 
price  of  the  stock  dropped  to  almost  nothing.  Even  the  gov- 
ernment was  involved  in  this  scandal.  A  similar  project  was 
John  Law  and  put  through  in  France  by  John  Law,  a  Scotch  '' promoter"  of 
Bubb^'''*'''''^'  the  time.  He  organized  The  Mississippi  Company,  which 
sought  to  capitalize  the  vast  wealth  of  Louisiana.  So  deluded 
were  the  French  people  that  all  classes  beggared  themselves  to 
buy  shares  in  this  alluring  business  venture,  and  the  government 
turned  over  the  management  of  the  national  finances  to  Law. 
The  inevitable  day  of  reckoning  came  when  this  bubble  burst 
also,  and  thousands  of  French  people  were  made  paupers. ' 

22.  Rise  and  Development  of  the  Trading  Company.  — 
The  chief  distinguishing  feature  of  the  growing  commerce 
which  marks  the  opening  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
that  whereas  earlier  trade  had  been  carried  on  by  individual 
merchants,  it  was  now  in  the  hands  of  regulated  and  joint-stock 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       45 

companies.     The  earlier  form  of  company  was  the  regulated 
company,  which  was  derived  from  the  trading  guild;  and  in  it  The  Regulated 
the  merchant  paid  a  definite  license  fee  for  engaging  in  the  spe-  ^™P*°y 
cial  trade  for  which  the  company  was  chartered.     The  money 


The  Russian  Market  Town,  Nijni-Novgorod 

A  street  in  the  fair  ai  Nijni  Novg<jrv)d.    In  the  foreground  are  seen  the 
picturesque  equipages  ot  Russia. 


received  from  these  fees  was  spent  by  the  company  in  measures 
of  protection  for  its  merchants,  such  as  the  maintenance  of 
consuls  at  foreign  ports,  who  looked  after  the  business  interests 
of  the  company,  and  of  forts  and  garrisons  in  regions  of  trade 
where  such  defences  were  necessary.  Each  merchant,  however, 
engaged  in  business  under  this  form  of  company  at  his  ow^n 
risk  to  a  very  large  extent,  for  whatever  losses  he  might 
sustain  were  in  no  wise  losses  to  the  company  at  large. 
Quite  different  was  the  second  form  of  trading  company,  the 


46     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  Joint-  joint-Stock  Company.  Such  an  organization  was  chartered  by 
stock  Company  ^j^^  government  and  was  under  the  control  of  parHament. 
Gains  and  losses  were  shared  by  all  members  of  the  company  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  stock  held  by  them.  Both  forms 
of  organization  were  bitterly  hostile  to  interlopers,  as  inde- 
pendent competitors  were  known. 


The  London 
East  India 
Company 


The  Portuguese  Colonial  Empire  about  1550 

During  the  reign  of  Mary  (1554)  a  company  of  merchants, 
known  as  the  Muscovy  Company,  was  formed  to  trade  with  the 
lands  around  Moscow,  the  old  capital  of  Russia.  They  obtained 
a  charter  from  the  crown  giving  them  the  monopoly  of  trade  in 
that  region,  and  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  trade  similar  to  those 
possessed  by  an  earlier  association  known  as  the  Merchant  Ad- 
venturers, organized  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  Somewhat 
later  other  companies  were  formed  to  trade  with  the  Levant,  the 
Baltic,  the  Barbary  or  northern,  and  the  Guinea  or  western, 
coast  of  Africa,  all  being  of  the  first  type  of  company  mentioned 
above.  At  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign  the  English  East 
India  Company  was  chartered,  which  became  the  first  of  the 
joint-stock  companies.  At  the  start  it  was  a  very  feeble  or- 
ganization with  slender  capital,  but  it  contained  the  germ  of 
the  future  British  Empire  in  India.     Other  joint-stock  com- 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS      47 


panics  were  the  English  South  Sea  Company,  the  French 
Mississippi  Company,  and  the  Dutch  West  India  Company 
(sec.  25). 

23.  The  Portuguese  as  Traders  and  Colonists.  —  The  race 
was  now  on  between  the  different  countries  of  Europe  to  secure 
the  world's  commerce.  It  had  begun  on  a  small  scale  in  the 
days  of  Vasco  da  Gama  and 
Columbus,  but  the  passing 
centuries  had  witnessed 
more  rivals  in  the  field  and 
the  elbowing  out  of  some  of 
the  first  comers.  During  the 
latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
ceiltury  the  Portuguese  had 
possessed  a  commercial  su- 
premacy over  the  East  Indies, 
the  southern  shores  of  Asia, 
and  portions  of  China  and 
Africa.  This  supremacy  was 
of  immense  advantage,  since 
all  the  spicery  of  the  East  at 
that  time  came  to  European 
trade-marts  through  Lisbon, 
the  principal  commercial  city 
of  Portugal.  Other  Portu- 
guese engaged  in  the  New- 
foundland fisheries,  and  still  others  exploited  the  resources 
and  began  the  colonization  of  Brazil.  Trading  privileges,  how- 
ever, were  exercised  under  special  royal  licenses  which  were 
granted  only  to  a  favored  few.  Unfortunately  for  her  trade, 
Portugal  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  united  to 
the  government  of  Spain,  and  the  Spanish  monarchs  not  only 
neglected  these  commercial  holdings  in  the  East,  but  also  en- 
gaged in  wars  with  other  European  powers,  during  the  course 
of  which  most  of   the  former  Portuguese  empire  in  the  Far 


A  Portuguese  Ship  of  the  15TH 
Century 

In  such  ships  as  this  the  Portuguese 
navigators  crept  along  the  coast  of 
Africa  on  their  voyages  of  discovery. 


48      ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Restrictions 
on  Trade 


East  was  conquered  by  the  Dutch.  When  Portugal  became 
independent  again,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
she  was  too  poor  and  too  weak  to  reconquer  what  she  had  lost 
in  the  East. 

24.   The  Spanish  Colonial  Empire :   the  Policy  of  the  Span- 
ish Rulers. — The  unification  of  the  kingdoms  of  Castile  and 

Aragon,  by  the  marriage  of 
Isabella  and  Ferdinand,  their 
rulers,  the  conquest  of  the 
Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada 
in  southern  Spain,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  new  world 
by  Columbus,  made  Spain 
one  of  the  leading  nations  of 
Europe  at  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  Yet  in  spite 
of  the  enormous  possibilities 
for  prosperity  arising  from 
the  wealth  of  her  new  posses- 
sions, Spain  failed  to  flourish. 
This  was  due  to  the  short- 
sighted and  selfish  policy  of 
the  Spanish  rulers.  The  gov- 
ernment very  early  restricted  commerce  by  means  of  heavy 
taxes,  which  brought  small  gain  to  the  treasury  at  the  expense 
of  hampering  trade.  Trading  ships  were  required  to  sail  only  at 
stated  seasons,  and  from  Cadiz  in  Spain  to  specified  ports  in  the 
New  World  .^  Emigration  was  rendered  difficult  and  unpromising 
by  restrictions  making  it  hard  to  obtain  permission  to  go  out  and 
by  the  problem  of  securing  employment  in  the  colonies.  No  in- 
dustry could  be  started  in  the  Spanish  colonies  which  might  in- 
terfere with  home  manufacturing,  and  intercolonial  commerce 
was  forbidden.  By  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  although 
the  governmental  policy  had  been  somewhat  reformed,  the  people 
in  the  Spanish  colonies  felt  only  bitterness  against  the  home  gov- 


A  Spanish  Galleon  of  the  i6th 
Century 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       49 

eminent  for  its  oppression  and  bided  their  time  to  throw  off  the 
Spanish  yoke. 

25.  The  Dutch  as  Traders.  —  While  Portugal  and  Spain  were 
declining,  a  former  dependency  of  the  latter,  the  Protestant 
Netherlands,  or  Holland,  became  for  a  time  foremost  in  the  com- 
mercial world.  The  closure  of  the  Portuguese  commercial  ports 
by  Spain  enabled  the  Dutch  to  gain  control  over  the  routes  to  the 
Far  East  and  to  maintain  an  active  trade  with  the  East  Indies, 


Spain's  Colonial  Empire  about  1550,  Showing  Lines  of  Demarcation 

Portugal's  operations  were  confined  to  the  central  and  Spain's  to  the  two 
outer  divisions  of  this  map. 

Asia,  and  the  Americas.  The  Dutch  West  India  Company  The  Dutch 
(founded  in  1621)  bore  the  brunt  of  the  war  on  the  seas  against  J^^^^^ 
Spain,  plundering  many  a  richly  laden  galleon  on  its  way  back 
to  Cadiz.  Their  East  India  Company  was  chartered  by  the 
government  in  1602  to  exercise  a  monopoly  of  trade  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  Malay  archipelago,  the  Spice  Islands, 
and  Java.  Nor  were  the  Dutch  principally  interested  in  the  Far 
Eastern  trade,  for  more  than  half  of  their  ships  were  engaged  in 
the  carrying  trade  with  the  ports  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas, 
taking  over  the  position  occupied  in  later  mediaeval  times  by  the 
Hansa  towns.     Other  ships  were  transporting  the  manufactures 


50     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Decline 
of  Dutch 
Carrying  Trade 


Characteristics 
of  the 
Mercantile 
System 


of  the  Dutch  cities  to  all  the  ports  of  Europe.  The  Dutch 
fisheries  were  of  greater  extent  and  value  than  those  of  England 
and  France  combined  during  the  same  period.  About  1650, 
England  began  to  wrest  from  the  Netherlands  this  supremacy 
of  the  seas.  This  change  came  about  because  of  the  small 
size  of  the  Netherlands  in  comparison  with  her  antagonist,  the 
lack  of  a  strong  governmental  poUcy,  the  control  of  trade  by  a 


The  Harbor  or  Amsterdam,  1780 
The  various  types  of  vessels  in  use  in  1780  are  here  shown  in  the  port  of 
Amsterdam. 

narrow  commercial  ring  to  the  prejudice  of  its  own  narrow 
interests,  and  the  aggressive  poUcy  of  England,  as  illustrated 
by  the  Navigation  Acts. 

26.  The  Mercantile  System.  —  These  rival  trading  nations 
one  and  all  followed  the  same  course  in  the  effort  to  dominate 
in  the  commercial  world.  Each  adhered  more  or  less  closely  to 
what  was  known  as  the  mercantile  system,  believing  that  by  it 
the  nation  could  best  serve  the  interests  of  trade  and  maintain 
its  colonial  supremacy.  The  supporters  of  this  theory  or  system 
believed  that  it  should  be  the  chief  business  aim  of  every  govern- 
ment to  increase  its  stock  of  precious  metals;  or,  at  least,  to  buy 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       51 

less  of  other  countries  than  it  sold  to  them,  so  as  always  to  have 
more  money  due  its  citizens  than  it  owed  the  citizens  of  other 
countries,  thus  maintaining  a  favorable  balance  of  trade.  As  a 
writer  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  expressed  it,  "If  we  keep  within 
us  much  of  our  commodities,  we  must  always  take  heed  that  we 
buy  no  more  of  strangers  than  we  sell  them;  for  so  we  should 
impoverish  ourselves  and  enrich  them." 


Tasman's  Explorations 
"Places  underlined  named  by  Dutch 


The  Colonial  Empire  of  Holland  about  1650,  Showing  Extent 
OF  Her  Trading  Operations 


In  order  to  maintain  a  favorable  balance  of  trade,  it  was 
necessary  in  the  first  place  to  limit  imports.  The  same  idea  is 
back  of  the  modern  theory  of  the  protective  tariff,  although  the 
motive  is  not  to  influence  the  flow  of  money  to  other  countries 
so  much  as  to  free  our  manufacturers  from  the  pressure  of  com- 
petition from  foreign  producers.  The  only  imports  to  be  en- 
couraged under  this  system  were  raw  materials,  as  these  could  be 
made  up  for  export.  The  export  of  raw  materials  was  vigorously 
discouraged  by  law.  Secondly,  it  was  necessary  to  build  up  the 
export  trade,  for  this  stood  on  the  credit  side  of  the  nation's 
books.  Bounties,  special  privileges,  either  in  the  remission  of 
taxes  or  in  governmental  aid,  were  given  struggling  industries  so 
that  the  volume  of  exports  might  be  constantly  increased. 


Exports 
and  Imports 


Bounties 


Commercial 
Treaties 


The  Methuen 
Treaty 


The  Assiento 
Treaty 


Colbert  and 
State  Aid 


52      ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Commercial  treaties  were  only  entered  into  by  a  nation  when 
they  seemed  to  be  based  upon  these  principles  or  ideas.  Illus- 
trations of  these  are  the  Methuen  and  Assiento  treaties.  In 
1703  England  concluded  the  Methuen  Treaty  with  Portugal 
whereby  she  agreed  to  exclude  French  wines  from  English  ports 
by  means  of  excessive  import  duties,  while  Portuguese  wines 
were  to  come  in  free.  In  return,  Portugal  promised  a  free  entry 
for  English  woolen  goods  and  other  manufactures  into  Portu- 
guese and  Brazilian  ports,  thus  opening  up  the  Portuguese  colony 
to  EngUsh  traders,  which  proved  of  inestimable  advantage  to 
them.  Ten  years  later,  by  the  Assiento  Treaty  at  the  end  of 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  England  gained  the  right 
to  send  annually  one  trading  ship  of  500  tons  burden  to  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America;  but  English  merchants  secretly 
increased  the  size  of  the  cargo,  often  sending  along  a  whole 
fleet  as  consorts  to  the  one  trading  ship.  This  led  to  another 
war  between  England  and  Spain  (sec.  32).  Monopoly  of 
the  slave  trade  with  the  Spanish  dependencies  was  also  granted 
to  the  English  by  this  treaty.  Both  these  provisions  greatly 
increased  the  volume  of  English  commerce  with  the  Spanish 
possessions. 

A  good  example  of  the  application  of  the  principle  of  state  aid 
for  industry  is  to  be  found  in  France  during  the  administration 
of  Colbert,  Louis  XIV's  minister  of  finance.  His  aim  was  to 
make  France  self-supporting.  To  this  end  he  had  enacted  two 
tariff  laws  applying  the  pi^inciple  of  protection  to  almost  every 
industry  in  France.  He  even  bought  the  trade  secrets  and 
processes  of  manufacture  from  other  nations  and  encouraged 
their  workmen  to  remove  to  France  and  engage  in  industry. 
Generous  loans  of  money  were  made  by  the  government  to 
men  who  would  establish  new  industries,  and  rewards  in  the 
shape  of  prizes  for  fine  workmanship  were  offered.  In  conse- 
quence, France  became  dotted  with  flourishing  industrial 
plants.  She  soon  attained  the  front  rank  in  European  in- 
dustry and  was  able  to  compete  with  Italy  in  the  manufac- 


INDUSTRIAL  AND   COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       53 

ture  of  silks,  laces,  and  velvets,  and  with  Holland  and  Flanders 
in  the  manufacture  of  linen  and  tapestries. 

27.   The  New  Science  of  Political  Economy  and  its  Relation 
to  Trade  and  Industry.  —  The  same  reform  movement  which 
had  given  rise  to  the  enlightened  despotism  witnessed  the  rise 
and  development  of  a  new  science,  that  of  economics  or  political  Political 
economy,  that  is,  the  science  of  the  production  of  wealth  and  its  ^^^^ 
proper  distribution  among  the  members  of  society.     Compara- 
tively little  attention  had  been  given  to  this  subject  in  earlier 
centuries.     The  growing  realization,  perhaps,  of  the  political 
power   which   trade  and  industry  brought    with  it,   directed 
the  attention  of  students  and  statesmen  to  those  principles 
underlying  sound  development  in  this  direction.     These  econo- 
mists, who  were  to  be  found  principally  in  France,  sought  at 
first  to  direct  attention  to  the  productive  possibilities  of  the 
soil  and  saw  in  agriculture  the  true  source  of  a  nation's  wealth. 
They  were  known  as  the  Physiocrats.     Others,  however,  began  The 
to  appear  who  proclaimed  another  doctrine,  namely  that  com-  P^ysio««*s 
merce  and  manufacturing,  carried  on  under  proper  conditions, 
offered  the  greatest  field  of  endeavor  and  promised  the  largest 
returns.     They  saw  many  objections  to  the  mercantile  system 
and  began  to  direct   their  attacks  upon  it. 

Adam  Smith,  a  brilliant  Scotchman  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Adam  Smith 
who  had  been  professor  of  philosophy  at  Glasgow  University,  ^^J^^ 
published  in  1776  an  epoch-making  book.  An  Inquiry  into  the  of  Nations 
Nature  and  Causes   of  the   Wealth  of   Nations,  in  which  he 
showed  the  importance  of  a  freer  trade  between  the  nations  of 
the  world,  and  that  selfishness  on  the  part  of  a  whole  people 
is  as  destructive  as  individual  selfishness.    His  teaching  made 
slow  progress  at  first,  but  as  nations  realized  the  soundness  of 
his  position  they  began  to  throw  off  the  artificial  restraints  of 
the  mercantile  system  and  to  enjoy  that  economic  freedom 
which  was  rightfully  theirs.     Adam  Smith  had  proclaimed  the 
declaration  of  their  economic  independence. 


54      ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND   QUESTIONS   FOR 
FURTHER   STUDY 

I.  What  part  was  played  by  the  guilds  in  politics  in  the  Middle  Ages? 
2.  Describe  the  life  of  a  guild  apprentice.  3.  Report  on  the  general  policy 
of  Henry  VIII  toward  the  guilds.  4.  Give  an  account  of  the  journeymen 
guilds.  5.  Read  Defoe's  description  in  full.  6.  Why  are  town  fairs  hke 
those  described  no  longer  necessary?  Describe  South wark  Fair.  7.  Write 
a  letter  to  a  friend,  imagining  a  journey  by  land  and  water  with  a  trader  of 
the  early  eighteenth  century.  8.  What  impression  of  mediaeval  banking 
do  you  gain  from  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice?  9.  Read  Emerson 
Hough's  "The  Mississippi  Bubble,"  and  describe  the  novelist's  impressions 
of  stock-gambling  in  the  eighteenth  century.  10.  Discuss  the  importance 
of  the  work  of  the  trading  companies  from  the  standpoint  of  the  spread  of 
European  culture.  11.  How  was  the  world  divided  between  Spain  and 
Portugal  by  a  Pope?  Has  this  line  of  demarcation  persisted  in  the 
geographical  bounds  of  modem  states?  Explain.  12.  What  was  a  galleon? 
the  Spanish  main?  the  Hanseatic  league?  13.  Compare  the  mercantile 
system  with  the  American   policy  of  protectionism  (protective  tariffs). 

14.  Discuss  the  effects  of   the    slave-trade    provision    of    the   Assiento. 

15.  Compare  the  financial  and  economic  measures  of  Colbert  with 
those  of  Alexander  Hamilton.  16.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  science 
of  economics  to  history?  17.  Give  a  biographical  sketch  of  Adam  Smith, 
describe  his  principal  writings,  and  discuss  his  influence  on  modern 
political  theory. 

Collateral  Reading  * 

I.  The  Guild  System. 

Beard,  Introduction  to  English  Historians  (Ashley),  pp.  169-184. 
Cheyney,  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  pp.  59-73, 
147-61.  Day,  History  of  Commerce,  pp.  47-52.  Webster, 
General  History  of  Commerce,  pp.  99-100.  Robinson  and 
Beard,  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  127-31. 
Tickner,  Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England,  pp.  42-57, 
61-62.     Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  36-43. 

II.  Mediaeval    Trade    and    Commerce,    Fairs,    The    Hanseatic 

League. 

Cheyney,  pp.  75-84.  Day,  pp.  54-127.  Webster,  pp.  55-105. 
Tickner,  pp.  65-73,  161-174. 

III.  Banking  and  Credit.    The  Bubble  Period. 

Cunningham,  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce,  Vol.  II, 
part  I,  pp.  142-61, 446-56.    Cheyney,  pp.  193-8.    Day,  pp.  120- ' 
41,  152-60.    Tickner,  pp.  358-71. 

IV.  Economic    Differences   between    Mediaeval    and    Modern 

Society. 
Cunningham,  pp.  1-12. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONDITIONS       ^s 

V.  The  Mercantile  System. 

Cunningham,  pp.  13-24.     Toynbee,  The  Industrial  Revolution, 
pp.  50-64-      Cheyney,  pp.  167-9,  189-93.     Day,  pp.  161-72. 
Seignobos,  Contemporary  Civilization,  pp.  57-9.    Hayes,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  62-4. 
VI.  Privileged  Companies  for  Commerce. 

Cunningham,  pp.  214-84.     Cheyney,  pp.  164-7.     Cheyney,  Euro- 
pean Background  of  American  History,  pp.    123-46.     Hayes, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  64-5. 
VII.  Beginnings  of  Colonization. 

Cunningham,    pp.    331-61.      Cheyney,    European    Background, 
pp.  147-67.    Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  pp.  45-66.     Hayes,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  55-62. 
VIII.  The  Economists. 

Seignobos,  pp.  59-62.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  179-82. 
Hirst,  Adam  Smith.     Cunningham,  pp.  93-7. 


Source  Studies 

1.  The  Guilds. 

Ordinances  of  typical  guilds.  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  His- 
tory, pp.  209-11.    Bland,  English  Economic  History,  pp.  141-7. 

A  typical  guild.     Library  of  Original  Sources,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  395-6. 

Adam  Smith  on  the  guilds  of  his  day.  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Readings  in  Modem  European  History,  Vol.  I,  pp.  142-5. 

Edict  abohshing  the  guilds  in  France,  Ihid.,  pp.  145-6. 

Adam  Smith's  criticism  of  the  guilds  of  his  day.  Bullock,  Read- 
ings in  Economics,  pp.  104-14. 

Protest  against  a  guild's  exclusiveness.  Bland,  p.  282. 

2.  Fairs. 

Sturbridge  Fair  in  the  eighteenth  century,  Bullock,  pp.  325-31- 

3.  The  domestic  system. 

An  English  market  town  of  the  eighteenth  century.  (Defoe), 
Bullock,  pp.  33 1-3- 

Description  of  the  cloth  trade  of  Halifax.  (Defoe),  Ihid.,  pp.  116- 
7,  note.     Bland,  pp.  482-7. 

Organization  of  the  woolen  industry.     Bland,  pp.  354-5- 

Domestic  system  compared  with  the  factory  system.  (Parliamen- 
tary report),  Ihid.,  pp.  114-24. 

4.  Commercial  policy  of  Colbert. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  13-4- 

5.  Adam  Smith. 

The  mercantile  system.     Library  of   Original  Sources,  Vol.  VI, 

pp.  399-427- 
The  Division  of  Labor.     Bullock,  pp  287-98. 


^6     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  On  an  outline  map  of  England  and  the  Netherlands  show  the  principal 
wool-raising  districts  in  the  Middle  Ages.  2.  On  a  map  of  Europe  show  the 
mediaeval  trade  routes  and  the  principal  towns  held  by  the  Hanseatic  league. 
3.  On  a  map  of  Asia  show  the  mediaeval  trade  routes  and  important  com- 
mercial towns  and  regions.  4.  On  a  map  of  western  Europe  show  the  loca- 
tion of  the  principal  town  fairs  of  the  Middle  Ages.  5.  Show  the  spheres  of 
influence  of  the  principal  trading  companies  of  the  early  modern  period. 
6.  Show  the  commercial  and  colonial  ventures  of  the  Portuguese  and  Span- 
iards in  the  Far  East.  7.  Show  the  commercial  and  colonial  ventures  of 
these  nations  in  the  New  World.  8.  Show  the  Dutch  colonial  empire  at  its 
widest  extent. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  The  chief  wool-raising  districts  of 
England  and  Flanders,  p.  76.  Mediaeval  commerce,  pp.  98-9.  Commercial 
routes  in  mediaeval  England,  p.  98.  The  Hanseatic  League,  p.  99.  Mediae- 
val commercial  routes  in  Asia,  pp.  102-3.  Mediaeval  commerce  in  India, 
p.  103.  The  age  of  discovery,  1300-1600,  pp.  107-10.  The  Portuguese  and 
Spanish  colonial  empires  in  the  East  Indies,  p.  112.  Colonies,  depend- 
encies, and  trade  routes  (modern  times),  pp.  179-82.  European  exploration 
and  settlement  in  the  United  States,  1513-1776,  p.  190. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  The  Hanseatic  league  at  its 
height,  p.  142.    The  expansion  of  Europe —  the  great  discoveries,  p.  16. 

Bibliography 
Beard.    Introduction  to  the  English  Historians.    Macmillan. 
Bland,  Brown  and  Tawney.    English  Economic  History :  Select  Documents. 

Macmillan. 
Bullock.    Readings  in  Economics.     Ginn. 

Cheyney.    European  Background  of  American  History.    Harper. 
Cheyney.    Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 
Cheyney.    Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England. 

Macmillan. 
Cunningham.    Growth  of   English    Industry  and    Commerce,  Volume  II. 

Cambridge  University  Press. 
Day.    History  of  Commerce.    Longmans. 
Hayes.     Political   and   Social   History   of  Modern   Europe.      Volume    I, 

Macmillan. 
Hirst.    Adam  Smith.    Putnam. 

Library  of  Original  Sources,  Volume  IV.    University  Research  Extension  Co. 
Robinson  and  Beard.    Development  of  Modern  Europe,  Volume  I.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.  Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  Volume  I.  Ginn. 
Seignobos.    Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 
Tickner.    Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England.    Longmans. 
Toynbee.     The  Industrial  Revolution.    Longmans. 
Webster.    General  History  of  Commerce.    Ginn. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND    COMMERCIAL  POWERS  AND 

THE   COMMERCIAL  WARS   OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY 

28.  The  Older  World  Powers  and  their  Decay.  —  In  order 
to  understand  the  colonial  and  commercial  interests  at  stake  in 
the  commercial  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  rivalry 
responsible  for  all  this  bloodshed,  it  is  necessary  to  look  over  the 
colonial  fields  possessed  by  the  various  European  countries  and 
take  the  measure  of  their  power  there.  Portugal  had  not 
recovered  from  the  blighting  effects  of  Spanish  rule  during  the 
first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  Dutch  had  seized 
many  of  her  most  valuable  colonial  possessions  in  the  Far 
East,  and  only  Goa,  on  the  west  coast  of  India,  Macao, 
across  the  Bay  from  Hongkong  in  Asia,  and  part  of  the  East 
Indian  Island  of  Timor  remained  to  her.  In  Africa  she  still 
retained  Angola,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  and  scattered  islands 
along  the  coast.  In  America  she  held  Brazil,  but  since  the 
Methuen  Treaty  (sec.  26)  she  had  acted  as  the  agent 
for  British  merchants  in  disposing  of  their  wares  in  Brazil,  so 
England  was  benefited  and  not  Portugal.  Moreover  France  and 
Spain,  to  punish  her  for  becoming  the  commercial  vassal  of 
England,  placed  heavy  duties  on  goods  imported  from  Portugal 
and  thus  deprived  her.  of  markets  near  at  hand.  Her  colonial 
governors  were  dishonest  men  who  plundered  their  domains. 
The  blight  of  the  slave  trade  was  already  beginning  to  lie  heavily 
upon  her,  for  she  controlled  not  only  the  best  source  of  supply, 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  but  found  a  ready  market  for  her  slaves 
in  Brazil. 


58     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Spain  in 
America 


The  Dutch 
in  Asia 


Reasons  for 
the  Decay  of 
Older  Powers 


Expansion  In 
America 


Spain  was  in  no  position  to  fight  for  colonial  masteiy.  The 
mistress  of  a  vast  American  empire  stretching  from  Cape  Horn 
to  Oregon,  she  had  stifled  its  development  by  a  burdensome 
system  of  taxation  and  a  series  of  restrictions  upon  trade. 

The  colonies  in  Asia  and  the  East  Indies  which  the  Dutch  had 
obtained  by  settlement  or  conquest  were  treated  less  in  the 
spirit  of  exploitation  than  were  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish 
colonies.  The  Dutch  fostered  among  the  natives  a  desire  for 
European  goods  instead  of  compelling  them  to  purchase  com- 
modities for  which  they  had  no  use.  The  Dutch,  however, 
could  not  free  their  colonial  policy  from  extortion  and  graft. 
The  seventeenth  century  marked  the  high  tide  of  Dutch  enter- 
prise, but  the  wars  in  which  the  Netherlands  were  involved 
during  the  closing  years  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  centuries  crippled  her  commerce  and  deprived 
her  of  other  opportunities  for  colonial  empire. 

The  chief  reasons  for  the  decay  of  the  commercial  and  colonial 
supremacy  of  these  older  world  powers  were  a  mistaken  idea  that 
the  colony  was  a  place  where  the  adventurous  and  daring  might 
amass  a  comfortable  fortune  by  all  sorts  of  oppressive  and 
unjust  means  to  spend  at  home  on  their  return,  and  the  short- 
sighted policy  of  each  government  in  not  developing  the  re- 
sources of  the  colony,  but,  instead,  draining  it  of  its  wealth. 

29.  The  Expansion  of  England  and  France.  —  The  struggle 
for  colonial  supremacy  in  the  eighteenth  century,  therefore, 
narrowed  itself  down  to  a  contest  between  France  and  England. 
English  and  French  colonization  of  the  New  World  was  well 
under  way  by  the  opening  of  the  century.  The  Atlantic  sea- 
board showed  a  division  into  twelve  English  colonies,  soon  to  be 
thirteen  by  the  founding  of  Georgia.  The  French  settlements 
were  along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  in  Nova  Scotia.  During 
the  early  part  of  the  century  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  discov- 
erers was  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  possession  of  Louisiana 
by  France  and  the  basis  of  their  claim  to  the  Ohio  Valley. 
While  each  people  was  successful  in  its  own  way,  there  were 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     59 

marked  differences  between  the  French  and  English  as  colo- 
nizers.   These  were  clearly  shown  in  their  relations  with  the 
natives.    The  early  settlers  met  the  Indian  in   a   threefold 
relation:  as  enemies,  neighbors,  and  fellow- traders.    While  the 
English  gained  stamina,  experience  in  self-government,  and  self- 
reliance  in  their  wars  with  the  Indians,  the  French  found  it  Relations  wit 
easier  to  mix  with  rather  than  to  fight  with  the  natives.     An-  *^®  Natives 
other  important  difference  was  the  result  of  the  policy  pursued 
by  the  French  government.    England  had  passed  through  the 
great  Civil  War  and  the  Revolution  of  1688  and,  in  consequence, 
had  gained  a  more  democratic  government  than  was  then  known 
elsewhere  among  the  great  powers;  France,  under  the  personal 
rule  of  Louis  XIV,  had  no  conception  of  a  government  hf  the 
people.  It  was  natural  that  the  colonies  of  the  two  nations  should 
reflect  the  governmental  ideas  of  their  mother  countries.     While  Systems  of 
the  English- Americans  were  holding  meetings  of  their  assemblies  ^°^®™™«^ 
and  quarrelling  with  their  governors  over  salaries  and  preroga- 
tives, the  French  habitants,  or  farmers,  and  the  coureurs  de  bois, 
or  fur  traders,  were  accepting  without  question  the  proclama- 
tions and  edicts  of  the  governor  sent  to  rule  them  by  Louis  XIV. 

Both  England  and  France  had  East  India  Companies  which  England 
strove  for  mastery  over  commercial  and  political  affairs  in  ^\^^^^ 
India  during  the  eighteenth  century.  This  vast  territory, 
peopled  by  two  hundred  millions  or  more  of  inhabitants  and 
more  densely  populated  than  Europe  at  the  time,  offered  a  fair 
field  for  exploitation  at  the  hands  of  Europeans  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  It  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the 
designing  French  and  English  merchants  who  coveted  its  riches. 
India  was  more  like  a  continent  than  a  single  country,  as  it  was 
composed  of  many  states  under  different  rulers  and  peopled  by 
a  variety  of  nations.  An  effort  had  been  made  to  unite  these 
when  the  Mughals  invaded  India  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Although  apparently  successful  for  a  time,  especially  between 
1628  and  1707,  the  empire  gradually  dechned  and  the  states 
passed  under  the  rule  of  native  princes  or  descendants  of  the 


The  Factory 


60      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Mughal  governors,  who  founded  new  dynasties  in  their  prov- 
inces. Each  East  India  Company  gradually  acquired  possession 
of  several  coast  towns,  which  they  fortified  and  used  as  centres 
of  trade  with  the  natives,  maintaining  factories  at  these  posts, 
where  they  employed  a  large  number  of  clerks,  guards,  and 
laborers,  under  the  control  of  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Com- 
pany.   These  factories  were  simply  depots  or  storehouses,  where 


agents  of  the  Company,  known  as  factors,  collected  goods  to  be 
sent  off  to  the  mother  country  by  the  next  ship  which  touched  at 
that  port.  These  towns  frequently  had  to  defend  themselves 
from  the  attacks  of  native  rulers  and  for  this  reason  became  lit- 
tle states  by  themselves,  possessing  in  the  course  of  time  a  well- 
trained  army  made  up  of  the  employees  and  native  soldiers  called 
sepoys.  In  1668  Charles  II  gave  to  the  English  Company  the 
important  town  of  Bombay  on  the  western  coast,  which  he  had 
received  from  Portugal  as  a  part  of  his  wife's  dowry;  and  in  1686 
the  Company  acquired  land  on  the  Hoogly  River,  where  it 
built  Fort  William  in  1696,  around  which  Calcutta  sprang  up. 


RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL   POWERS     6 1 


05-51 


3.     P 


en  O- 


fiiif 


5  ^  g  p 

■1  C  ;j  ro 
3  to  O  5^ 


(W  a 

P 


1.1  "?■ 

5  Q-O  ^ 


a,p  <;p 


n  o 


5'!=^. 


i  I 


i-8 


-    -     CO 


rH 


0)    3 


O   P   o   P 


p'p  O-p 

Ilii 


aoo  (r< 


WO 


w 


•3  i  p  ^  5-2 
I  (DO  I  ~r  E^ 


S  4^  S"  5^  p  w  3 

c-     b      K  P  -^ 


S 


Oc  '^o  g- 


1—1(6 

•^(0 


P  o  ?p* 

DP  p 

S^  I" 

•^    P  ^    l-rl 


'.5!  W 

si 


?ll 


p  ® » 

td-r- 
(» 


a-°-3     3. 

^1-1      o 


|Sp3^ 


>TJ^3 

og.9 


en;  ?^  <-.      O  tJ  O        K'.T  — 


7  fD  ►,  p  0.0  euci.(6 


J?> 

2-Mo^>W 

g-C  C  "  0  3 

S  CLD  0  Sw 

II 

and 
di 
tia 
dlan 
son 
y 

7S 

wP-:r'- 

H 

p  2^0  "• 

i 

f^lsl 

62     ESSENTIALS    IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

30.   The    Rivalry   between   England    and   France.  — When 
WiUiam  of  Orange  was  called  to  the  EngUsh  throne  in  1688, 
War  of  the        Great  Britain  became  involved  in  a  war  between  Louis  XIV 
Palatinate  ^^^  ^^le  Netherlands,  and  thus  began  a  struggle  for  supremacy, 

not  only  in  Europe,  but  also  in  the  forests  of  North  America, 
upon  the  plains  of  India,  upon  the  high  seas  and,  in  short, 
wherever  the  rival  nations  came  into  contact.  The  opening 
phase  of  the  great  struggle  —  called  the  War  of  the  Palati- 
nate because  the  French  invaded  that  region  at  the  outset  — 
was  indecisive.  (See  chart  of  wars,  page  61.)  The  chief  im- 
portance of  this  war  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  a  forecast  of 
the  greater  struggle  to  come.  A  peace  was  no  sooner  concluded 
(the  Treaty  of  Ryswick)  than  William  III  began  to  make  prep- 
arations for  a  renewal  of  the  struggle. 

This  was  precipitated  by  the  death  of  Charles  II  of  Spain  in 
1700.    He  had  left  his  possessions  by  will  to  the  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV  of  France,  who  had  an  hereditary  claim  to  the  crown. 
(See  chart,  page  418.)     There  were  other  claims,  however,  and 
Causes  for  War  scvcral  efforts  had  been  made  to  adjust  these  and  avert  if  pos- 
be^yeen  France   g-|^jg  ^  general  European  war.     Only  a  year  before  his  death  a 
partition  of  the  Spanish  possessions  had  been  agreed  upon  be- 
tween Louis  and  WiUiam,  to  which  the  Spanish  king  was  not 
a  party,  whereby  Spain  was  to  be  given  to  the  Archduke  Charles 
of  Austria.     This  treaty  was  broken  by  Louis  XIV  in  1700, 
when  he  recognized  Philip  as  the  King  of  Spain.      W^illiam 
feared  that  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV's  grandson  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  would  mean  the  practical  joining  of  the  kingdoms  of 
France  and  Spain.    The  following  year,  when  Louis  XIV  vio- 
lated the  recently  signed  Treaty  of  Ryswick  by  recognizing 
James  Edward  Stuart  as  the  rightful  king  of  England  upon  the 
death  of  his  father,  the  exiled  James  II,  the  Enghsh  parliament 
The  Grand         declared  war.    A  Grand  Alliance  was  formed  between  England, 
AUiance  Austria,  and  the  Dutch  Republic  which  had  as  its  objects:    (i) 

the  restoration  to  the  Dutch  of  the  fortresses  in  Belgium  seized 
by  Louis  XIV;  (2)  the  transfer  to  the  Austrian  claimant  of  the 


RIVAL    COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     63 

Spanish  possessions  in  Italy;  (3)  the  prevention  of  the  union 
of  France  and  Spain,  thus  preserving  the  balance  of  power; 
and  finally  (4)  the  maintenance  upon  the  English  throne  of  the 
new  dynasty. 

In  addition  to  these  primary  and  dynastic  causes,  powerful 
colonial  influences  were  behind  the  struggle.  In  1690,  while  the 
War  of  the  Palatinate  was  being  waged  in  Europe,  the  French, 
supported  by  their  Indian  allies,  had  made  a  raid  upon  the 
little  town  of  Schenectady  in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  and  the 
terrors  of  Indian  atrocities  filled  the  minds  of  the  English 
colonists  with  a  spirit  of  vengeance.  Other  French  and  Indian  Indian  Raids 
attacks  were  made  during  the  next  few  years  upon  the  border 
settlements  of  the  English  in  New  England,  in  pursuance  of  the 
policy  of  the  French  Governor-general  of  Canada,  Count 
Frontenac,  to  keep  the  English  restricted  to  the  territory  already 
held  by  them  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  developing  the 
interior  of  the  country  and  thus  approaching  the  French  posses- 
sions. In  1690,  Massachusetts  organized  a  small  fleet  under 
the  command  of  Sir  William  Phipps  and  captured  the  fortress  of 
Port  Royal  in  Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia.  Encouraged  by  this 
success,  Phipps  with  a  larger  force  later  attempted  to  take 
Quebec,  but  without  success.  The  news  came  to  Boston  that 
the  French  government  was  planning  a  combined  land  and  sea 
attack  on  New  England,  and  measures  of  defence  were  planned. 
The  Treaty  of  Ryswick,  however,  gave  a  breathing  spell.  As 
by  this  compact  Port  Royal  was  restored  to  the  French  and  the 
outrages  by  the  Indians  continued,  the  colonists  were  eager  for 
a  renewal  of  the  war  even  before  the  campaign  opened  in  Europe. 

31.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  and  its  Effects 
upon  Colonial  and  Commercial  Development.  —  Although  Wil- 
liam III  of  England  died  just  as  the  war  was  starting,  and  his 
sister-in-law  Anne  became  queen,  his  true  successor  was  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  welded  together  the  allied  armies  The  Duke  of 
of  the  English,  Dutch,  Austrians,  and  of  several  of  the  minor  " 
German  states.    At  the  outset  the  French  king  had  the  advan- 


64     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Blenheim 
and  Ramillies 


Malplaquet 


tage  in  that  he  held  the  border  fortresses  in  the  Spanish  Neth- 
erlands, and  in  that  an  aUiance  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria 
enabled  him  to  prevent  for  a  time  the  junction  of  the  allied 
armies.  In  1704  Marlborough  made  a  brilliant  march  from  the 
lower  Rhine  to  the  upper  Danube,  effected  a  junction  with 

Prince  Eugene,  the  Austrian  com- 
mander, routed  the  French  at 
Blenheim  (1704),  and  swept  them 
out  of  Germany.  Two  years  later 
another  victory  at  Ramillies  drove 
the  French  from  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  while  Prince  Eugene 
routed  them  from  Italy.  The 
victorious  allies  demanded  as  a 
price  of  peace  that  King  Louis 
join  them  against  his  grandson, 
but  the  aged  monarch  drew  back. 
"If  I  must  wage  war,"  said  he, 
"I  would  rather  wage  it  against 
my  enemies  than  against  my  children."  He  sent  another  army 
against  the  allies,  but  it  was  half-starved  and  poorly  equipped, 
and  although  his  men  fought  with  desperation  they  were  de- 
feated at  Malplaquet.  In  171 1,  at  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph,  the  Archduke  Charles  succeeded  to  the  imperial  title. 
England  now  perceived  that  further  efforts  to  gain  for  him  the 
throne  of  Spain,  if  successful,  would  as  seriously  disturb  the 
balance  of  power  as  to  acquiesce  in  the  succession  of  Philip  V. 
Furthermore,  it  was  discovered  that  Marlborough  had  been 
enriching  himself  at  the  expense  of  the  army,  and  a  change  of 
ministry  in  England  found  the  English  people  ready  for  peace 
at  any  price. 

In  America,  Port  Royal,  the  chief  town  of  Acadia,  had  been 
recaptured  by  the  colonial  troops.  Acadia,  or  Nova  Scotia, 
as  the  English  renamed  it,  included  not  only  the  peninsula  now 
so  called,  but  also  the  territory  as  far  west  as  Maine  and  north 


The  Duke  of  Marlborough 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     6s 

to  the  St.  Lawrence.     In  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  signed  in  17 13  Peace 
between  England  and  France,  Acadia,  Newfoundland,  and  the   °'  ^t^echt 
Hudson  Bay  fur-trading  territory  were  definitely  given  to  Eng- 
land.    The  original  object  of  the  war  was  not  mentioned,  ex- 
cept in  the  proviso  that  the  thrones  of  Spain  and  France  should 


Gibraltar 

An  unusual  view  of  the  great  rock  at  Gibraltar.    Above  the  town,  which 
nestles  at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  towers  the  great  natural  fortress. 


never  be  united,  and  by  Philip's  renouncing  all  right  of  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  of  France.  He  ceded  Minorca  and  Gibraltar 
to  England,  two  commanding  strategic  points  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Louis  XIV  recognized  Anne's  right  to  the  throne  of 
England.  An  accompanying  treaty  between  England  and  Spain 
gave  the  former  the  monopoly  of  the  slave  trade  with  the  Span-  Assiento  Treaty 
ish  colonies  in  America  and  the  right  to  send  one  ship  annually 
to  trade  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  was  at  the  time  of  this 
war  that  the  Methuen  Treaty  between  England  and  Portugal 
gave  England  the  commercial  dictatorship  over  that  country. 


66     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Family 
Compact 
between  France 
and  Spain 


The  increase  of  colonial  empire  as  a  result  of  this  war  greatly 
encouraged  English  commerce,  for  both  France  and  the  Nether- 
lands were  exhausted  by  the  war  on  their  frontiers,  and  the 
Dutch  were  no  longer  able  to  compete  with  the  English  on  the 
seas.  England  was  now  the  one  great  sea-power  in  Europe. 
The  naval  operations  of  this  war  and  of  the  preceding  strug- 
gle had  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt  her  naval  power.    On 

the  other  hand,  France  had  lost 
the  prestige  in  European  affairs 
which  had  been  hers  for  over 
half  a  century  as  a  result  of  the 
statesmanship  of  Richelieu, 
Mazarin,  Colbert,  and  Louis 
XIV.  A  year  after  the  close  of 
the  war  Queen  Anne  died,  and 
George,  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
quietly  took  the  English  throne, 
notwithstanding  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  upon  the  part  of 
James  Edward  to  regain  the 
throne  of  his  father.  At  the 
very  time  of  this  rising,  Louis 
XIV  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  greatgrandson,  Louis  XV.  The  advisers  of  Louis  XV 
and  the  English  prime  minister,  Walpole  (sec.  37),  favored 
peace,  and  for  this  reason  the  final  settlement  of  the  struggle  for 
mastery  was  postponed  for  a  quarter  of  a  century. 

32.  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. — The  Assiento  Treaty, 
in  its  permission  to  the  English  to  send  one  ship  annually  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  was  a  remote  cause  of  the  next  great  gen- 
eral European  war  in  that  it  led  to  friction  between  England 
and  Spain,  whose  destinies  were  now  closely  bound  up  with  those 
of  France  on  account  of  the  league  of  offence  and  defence  en- 
tered into  by  Spain  and  France  in  1733,  an  understanding  which 
foreshadowed  the  famous  Family  Compact  of  the  Bourbons  of 


Frederick  the  Great 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     67 


1 761.    The  English  traders  took  advantage  of  the  Assiento 
Treaty  in  the  following  manner.    After  the  one  ship  of  500  tons' 
burden  permitted  by  the  treaty  had  sailed  into  Porto  Bello  and 
discharged  her  cargo,  at  night  smaller  boats  which  had  lain 
hidden  by  day,  sailed  in  and  reloaded  it,  thus  enabhng  much 
more  than  the  cargo,  intended 
by  the   treaty  to   be   landed. 
British  smuggling  in   Spanish 
colonial    ports   was   rife,   and 
when  the  Spanish  officials  cap- 
tured any  of  these  smugglers 
they  took  summary  vengeance 
upon  them.     One  case  of  such 
punishment  was  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  House   of 
Commons  and  aroused  a  desire 
for  vengeance  in  the  hearts  of 
Englishmen  and  led  to  a  dec- 
laration of  war  against  Spain 
in  1739.     This  war,  called  the 
War  of  Jenkins's  Ear  from  the 
act  of  barbarism  which  began 
it,  dragged  on  for  several  years  and  finally  was  merged  with  a 
general  European  war  that  arose  from  the  territorial  ambitions 
of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  and  from  the  question  of  who  Ambitions 
should  succeed  as  ruler  over  the  possessions  of  the  Emperor  ^^  Grelt*^and 
Charles  VI,  who  died  in  1740.     In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Charles,   their  Efifects 
by  the  so-called  Pragamatic  Sanction,  had  induced  the  various  ^^    ^^^^ 
European  rulers  to  recognize  his  daughter,   Maria  Theresa,  as 
heir  to  his  Hapsburg  possessions,  she   was  not   allowed   to 
ascend  the  throne  without  a  severe  struggle.     Frederick  II, 
who  had  come  to  the  Prussian  throne  five  months  before,  at 
Charles's  death  rejected  his  father's  promise  to  the  late  em- 
peror and  threw  an  army  into  the  Austrian  province  of  Silesia, 
which  he  speedily  conquered  and  annexed.     France  entered  the 


Maria  Theresa,  Archduchess  of 
Austria  and  Queen  of  Hungary 


War  of 
Jenkins's  Ear 


68     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Clive  and 
Dupleix  in 
India 


The  Austrian 
Succession  War 
in  India 


war  against  Maria  Theresa,  on  behalf  of  the  Elector  Charles  of 
Bavaria,  who  was  chosen  emperor  in  1742,  while  England,  fear- 
ing the  loss  of  her  Hanoverian  possessions  if  Frederick  became 
too  powerful,  declared  war  against  France 
and  Prussia  in  1744.^ 

33.  Colonial  Interests  Involved.  —  Our 
main  interest  in  this  war  lies  more  in  the 
colonial  interests  involved  than  in  the  tangle 
of  European  diplomacy,  war,  and  treaty 
which  'g,ccompanied  it.  In  India  and  in 
America  the  struggles  between  the  English 
and  French  were  destined  to  produce  far- 
reaching  results.  One  of  the  clerks  of  the 
East  India  Company's  factory  at  Madras 
was  Robert  Clive,  the  son  of  a  poor  English 
landholder,  who  because  of  his  incorrigibi- 
lity had  been  shipped  off  to  far-away  India 
to  be  straightened  out  in  the  school  of  expe- 
rience. His  first  years  there  were  wretched, 
and,  tormented  by  home-sickness  and 
poverty,  he  twice  attempted  suicide.  When 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  began, 
the  French  attempted  to  drive  the  English 
out  of  India.  Madras  was  captured  and 
destroyed,  and  Clive  narrowly  escaped  being 
carried  prisoner  with  his  fellow-clerks  to  Pondicherry,  a  French 
post  over  a  hundred  miles  south  on  the  sea-coast,  of  which 
Dupleix  was  governor.  The  French  were  still  in  possession  of 
Madras  when  the  European  war  ended,  and  although  this  con- 
quest was  returned  to  the  English,  the  war  could  hardly  be  said 

1  During  this  war  occurred  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  in  which  George  II 
participated.  This  was  the  last  occasion  in  which  an  English  monarch 
actually  was  present  on  the  field  of  battle  until  the  European  war  of  our 
own  day.  In  1745  Charles  Edward,  the  son  of  James  Edward,  made  a 
more  strenuous  effort  than  tnat  of  his  father  to  regain  the  throne  for  the 
Stuarts,  but  he  was  easily  defeated  and  driven  into  exile  on  the  continent. 


A  Prussian  Gren- 
adier 
The  father  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  de- 
lighted in  collecting 
tall  soldiers  from  all 
parts  of  Europe  for 
his  splendid  army. 


RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  POWERS      69 

to  have  ended  in  India,  for  Dupleix  now  conceived  the  plan  of 
building  up  a  great  French  colonial  empire  and  began  to  put  his 
plan  into  operation  by  a  series  of  intrigues  with  the  native 
princes,  which  cost  the  English  a  tremendous  struggle  in  the  next 
decade. 


Bombay 
It  is  difficult  to  recognize  in  this  modern  city  the  ancient  Parsee  capital  of 
India,  Bombay. 

In  the  far  west,  too,  along  the  borders  of  Canada  where  the 
French  faced  the  English  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  the  New  England 
colonies,  and  in  New  York,  there  were  ceaseless  hostihties. 
These  took  the  form  of  raids  across  the  frontier  and  Indian 
outrages,  which  were  Httle  affected  by  formal  declarations  of 
war  or  peace  between  the  parent  countries.  The  only  important 


70     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  War  of 
the  Austrian 
Succession 
in  America 


The  Treaty  of 
Peace  and  Its 
Results 


Beginnings  of 
French  and 
Indian  War 


military  enterprise  in  America  in  the  period  of  the  Austrian 
Succession  War,  was  the  capture  of  the  strongly  fortified  French 
post  of  Louisbourg  on  Cape  Breton  Island  by  a  force  composed 
chiefly  of  Massachusetts  men  under  the  command  of  Governor 
Shirley  and  Colonel  William  Pepperell. 

The  return  of  this  fortress,  so  dearly  bought  by  the  colonials,  in 
the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which  in  1748  closed  the  European 
hostilities,  was  one  of  the  remote  causes  of  the  War  for  American 
Independence.  The  colonists  could  not  see  why  the  English 
returned  to  the  French  this  stronghold  whence  piratical  expedi- 
tions had  harried  the  coasts  of  all  New  England.  Yet  England 
regained  her  factory  of  Madras,  and  this  seemed  at  the  time  of 
greater  importance  to  her  than  Louisbourg.  Frederick  retained 
Silesia;  but  with  the  exception  of  some  cessions  to  the  little 
state  of  Sardinia,  all  territory  gained  during  the  war  was  restored 
to  its  former  owners  by  this  treaty.  Thus  three  important 
issues  were  left  for  future  settlement:  the  enmity  between 
Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick  the  Great;  the  struggle  for 
commercial  and  political  mastery  in  India;  and  the  clashing 
interests  of  France  and  England  in  America. 

34.  The  French  and  Indian  War.  —  France  laid  claim  to  the 
interior  of  the  American  continent  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  and 
the  governor  of  Canada  ordered  all  Englishmen  driven  from  the 
valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  The  Ohio  Company  was 
organized  to  colonize  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  its  traders 
and  settlers  challenged  the  French  to  drive  them  out.  Accord- 
ingly a  French  force  of  1200  men,  far  outnumbering  the  few 
English  settlers,  was  sent  into  this  region,  and  important 
strongholds,  among  them  Fort  Duquesne,  were  established  along 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Ohio  River  and  its  branches,  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  of  George  Washington  to  block  them. 
Unsuccessful  in  the  fall  of  1753  in  his  mission  to  the  French 
commander,  Washington  returned  in  the  spring  of  1754  with 
a  small  body  of  men  to  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Duquesne  and 
won  a  skirmish  at  Great  Meadows,  but  was  forced  to  surrender 


RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  POWERS      71 


72     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Progress 
of  the  War 


Capture  and 
Defence  of 

Arcot 


at  Fort  Necessity.  In  a  short  time  troops  were  on  their  way 
from  Europe,  and  at  last  the  French  and  Indian  War  had  begun 
in  earnest. 

The  first  period  of  this  war  was  one  of  disaster  for  the  EngUsh. 
A  force  under  General  Braddock  and  Washington  was  crushed 
while  attempting  to  capture  Fort  Duquesne,  and  Montcalm 
gained  Oswego  and  Fort  William  Henry  for  the  French.  The 
causes  for  French  success  may  be  found  in  the  lack  of  unity  in 
the  British  possessions  in  America,  which  manifested  itself  in 
jealous  quarrels  between  the  colonies,  and  in  the  failure  of  the 
colonial  troops  to  cooperate  heartily  with  the  British  officers. 
But  the  memory  of  the  first  disasters  of  the  war  was  blotted  out 
by  the  victories  that  followed  after  William  Pitt  became  the 
head  of  the  English  government  in  1757.  He  adopted  a  defi- 
nite, aggressive  policy.  More  and  better  troops  were  sent  to  the 
colonies  under  able  officers,  and  ofiicers  holding  colonial  com- 
missions were  accorded  the  same  consideration  as  those  in  the 
regular  army.  Louisbourg,  Fort  Duquesne,  Niagara,  Quebec, 
and  Montreal  were  successively  captured,  and  by  1760  French 
dominion  in  North  America  had  been  destroyed. 

35.  Clive  in  India.  —  Meanwhile  important  events  had  been 
transpiring  in  Asia.  The  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  returned 
Madras  to  the  English  in  1748,  but  in  the  same  year  Dupleix, 
the  French  governor,  was  granted  full  control  over  the  Circars 
(see  map  opposite)  by  the  native  prince  of  that  region  as  a  reward 
for  the  assistance  which  he  had  rendered  in  securing  for  him  his 
crown.  As  the  English  had  aided  his  unsuccessful  rival,  matters 
looked  dark  for  them.  In  the  war  which  followed,  Clive,  the 
clerk  in  the  East  India  Company's  factory  in  Madras,  showed 
his  genius  and  power  of  leadership  in  the  capture  and  defence  of 
Arcot  —  an  exploit  that  ''marked  the  turning  point  of  the  for- 
tunes of  the  English  in  India."  His  contact  with  Dupleix  had 
impressed  him  with  three  important  truths:  first,  that  native 
armies  were  unable  to  r  iist  the  discipHned  troops  of  Europe; 
that  European  discipUne  could  easily  be  imparted  to  natives; 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL   POWERS     73 


and  finally  that  in  Asiatic  warfare  the  true  way  to  victory  is  to 

attack  boldly  and  without  hesitation.    In  1753  he  returned  to 

England,   having    saved 

southeastern    India    from 

Dupleix,  who  was  recalled 

to   France   in  disgrace  a 

year  later. 

Sent  back  in  1755  as 
governor  of  Fort  St.  David 
near  Madras,  Clive  soon 
found  an  opportunity  for 
even  greater  service. 
Siraj-ud-daula,  the  native 
governor  of  Bengal,  in  all 
probability  inspired  by  the 
French,  suddenly  attacked 
and  captured  Calcutta 
after  a  feeble  resistance. 
He  confined  the  146  Eng- 
lish prisoners  taken  in  a 
cell  measuring  only  eigh- 
teen feet  square,  where 
they  sweltered  in  agony 
for  a  whole  night.  When 
morning  came  and  the 
prison  was  opened,  only 
twenty-three  were  living. 
When  the  news  of  this 
outrage  reached  Clive,  he 
hastened  from  Madras  to  Bengal,  and  with  a  tiny  army  of 
1000  Englishmen  and  2000  sepoys  inflicted  a  decisive  defeat 
upon  Siraj-ud-daula's  army  of  50,000  at  Plassey  (1757).  This 
victory  placed  a  large  part  of  Bengal  in  the  hands  of  the 
British.  Three  years  later  the  French  in  the  region  of  Madras 
were  finally  thwarted  in  all  their  plans  of  extending  their  power 


Robert  Clive 

Robert,  Lord  Clive,  here  appears  as 
the  successful  military  governor  and  man 
of  affairs  whom  Pitt  hailed  as  "a  heaven- 
born  general. ' '  Three  years  after  Plassey, 
CUve  returned  to  England  with  a  great 
fortune,  entered  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  During 
the  years  1765  to  1767  CUve  was  sent 
back  to  India  to  introduce  reforms,  but 
he  made  many  enemies  and  on  his  next 
return  to  England  he  had  to  face  a  par- 
liamentary inquiry  as  to  his  administra- 
tion. Disappointed  and  iU,  he  committed 
suicide. 


Plassey 


74     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Wandewash 


Causes 
of  Seven 
Years'  War 


at  the  battle  of  Wandewash,  and  the  following  year  the  EngUsh 
forces  captured  Pondicherry.  Thus  almost  at  the  same  time  was 
ended  the  English-French  struggle  *for  supremacy  in  North 
America  and  in  India. 

36.  The  Seven  Years'  War.  —  Thus  far  we  have  neglected 
the  European  background  of  this  tremendous  colonial  struggle. 
Maria  Theresa  had  never  forgiven  Frederick  the  Great  for  his 
seizure  of  Silesia,  although  his  title  to  that  province  was  es- 


AUiance 
between  France 
and  Austria 


Growth  of  Brandenburg  —  Prussia 

tablished  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  position  of 
Austria  in  Europe  was  strengthened  by  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance 
with  France.  This  was  an  event  of  tremendous  significance  in 
that  it  immediately  detached  France  from  the  number  of  her 
enemies  and  bound  her  closely  to  Austria.  But  it  also  divided 
the  strength  and  energy  of  France  at  a  time  when  the  prose- 
cution of  the  struggle  in  Asia  and  America  was  at  its  height. 
This  alUance  was  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  Russia, 
whose  empress  was  easily  persuaded  to  take  up  arms  against 
Prussia  because  of  her  hatred  for  its  ruler.  As  England  was  at 
this  time  contending  for  colonial  supremacy  with  France,  she 
became  Prussia's  only  ally  and  aided  Frederick  with  grants  of 


William  Pitt,  Earl  of 
Chatham 


RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  POWERS     75 

money  until  the  death  of  George  II  in  1760.  When  WiUiam  Pitt  PoUcyof 
was  called  upon  to  direct  the  war  he  realized  that  the  question  ^'^°  "" 
of  colonial  supremacy  would  be  settled 
as  much  upon  the  plains  of  Europe  as 
in  the  forests  of  America,  so  he  gave 
Frederick  the  Great  all  the  assistance  in 
his  power.  For  several  years  Frederick 
maintained  a  desperate  struggle  against 
odds,  but  the  death  of  the  Empress 
Elizabeth  in  1762  brought  Peter  III,  a 
great  admirer  of  Frederick,  to  the  Rus- 
sian throne,  and  he  promptly  made 
peace  with  Prussia.  France  now  was 
stripped  of  her  colonies  and  weary  of 
the  war.    Accordingly  the  treaties  of 

Paris  and  Hubertsburg  .(1763)  put  an  end    to   this   gigantic 
struggle. 

By  the  former  compact  England  received  Florida  from  Spain  Treaty  of 
in  return  for  Cuba,  which  she  had  captured  during  the  war,  and 
was  confirmed  in  her  title  to  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Cape 
Breton  Island.  She  also  regained  Minorca  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  had  been  captured  during  the  war.  France  ceded 
Louisiana  to  Spain  and  regained  Pondicherry  and  other  posts 
in  India  which  she  had  lost  during  the  war,  but  was  never  able 
to  regain  her  lost  supremacy  in  the  East.  Thus  ended  France's 
eighteenth-century  dream  of  colonial  empire. 

37.  Attempts  of  England  to  Modify  her  Colonial  Policy.  — 
The  situation  in  America  during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Suc- 
cession and  at  the  opening  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  brought 
home  to  English  administrators  as  never  before  the  weaknesses 
of  their  colonial  system.  The  accession  of  the  Hanoverian 
rulers,  and  the  development  of  party  government  under  Walpole 
and  his  successors,  had'  permitted  a  neglect  of  the  colonies 
which  not  only  tended  to  weaken  the  hold  of  the  mother  coun- 
try upon  them  but  placed  them  at  the  mercy  of  England's 


Paris 


Colonial 
Cessions 


76     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Reasons 

for  Change  in 

Colonial  Policy 


The  Mercantile 
System  in 
Theory 


The  Molasses 
Act.  1733 


Restrictions   on 
Manufacturing 


enemies  in  time  of  war.  It  was  largely  the  necessity  of  uniting 
the  forces  of  these  oversea  dominions  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  French  that  prompted  a  more  vigorous  policy  than  had 
thus  far  been  pursued.  When  the  great  struggle  was  over  the 
situation  seemed  to  demand  that  the  American  colonies  should 
not  only  repay  a  part  of  the  expenditure  of  the  miUions  of  pounds 
sterling  which  had  been  spent  in  estabhshing  British  dominion 
in  America,  but  that  they  should  help  bear  the  burden  of  the  new 
plans  of  defence  which  experience  had  shown  to  be  so  necessary. 

In  theory  the  colonies  had  all  along  been  regulated  according 
to  the  principles  laid  down  by  the  advocates  of  the  mercantile 
system.  Laws  had  been  passed  and  regulations  made  in  har- 
mony with  these  ideas.  The  Navigation  Act  of  1660  restricted 
colonial  commerce  to  vessels  built  in  English  ship-yards  and 
manned  with  crews  of  which  at  least  three  fourths  were  English 
subjects.  Its  object  was  to  encourage  the  ship-building  industry 
as  well  as  to  deprive  the  Dutch  of  their  supremacy  in  the  carry- 
ing trade.  A  second  act  passed  in  1663  forbade  the  direct 
European  importation  by  the  colonies  of  goods  of  nations 
other  than  England.  Such  goods  might  be  ordered  through 
British  merchants  at  an  increased  cost.  A  third  law  (1672) 
required  the  exportation  of  certain  "enumerated  articles,"  such 
as  tobacco  and  rice,  only  by  way  of  England. 

Then  again  there  was  the  Molasses  Act  (1733),  which  laid 
almost  prohibitive  duties  upon  molasses  coming  into  the  English 
colonies  from  Spanish  or  French  possessions.  Its  purpose  was 
to  give  the  English  planters  in  Jamaica  a  monopoly  over  the 
supply  for  New  England's  rum  industry;  but  the  New  Eng- 
landers  smuggled  molasses  in  defiance  of  the  act  and  the 
attempts  to  enforce  it  only  increased  the  irritation  felt  against 
the  mother  country.  Colonial  manufacturing  labored  under  the 
discouragement  of  laws  to  prevent  all  industries  which  might 
compete  with  those  of  England.  Hat-making,  woolen-weaving, 
and  the  manufacture  of  iron  were  among  the  industries  which 
suffered  by  the  restrictions. 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     77 

These  restrictions,  however,  'were  not  excessive  as  viewed 
through  the  eyes  of  European  statesmen  of  the  time.  The 
colony  was  expected  to  be  of  assistance  to  the  mother  country 
in  furnishing  a  market  for  her  manufactures.  While  the 
colonial  policies  of  Spain  and  France  choked  out  all  healthful 
colonial  development,  England's  policy  hmited  her  colonies 
only  in  certain  directions. 

To  administer  these  laws  properly  there  had  been  created  as 
early  as  the  Stuart  period  a  standing  committee  of  the  British 
Privy  Council  known  as  the  Board  of  Trade.  This  Board  re- 
ceived regular  reports  from  colonial  governors  concerning  the 
revenues  of  the  colonies,  the  actions  of  their  legislatures,  and 
the  state  of  agriculture  and  trade.  It  had  the  power  to  order 
the  governors  to  veto  offensive  legislation  by  the  colonial  as- 
semblies. Besides  this  body  there  was  a  Secretary  of  State 
who  gave  attention  to  various  colonial  matters.  A  certain 
harmony  of  action  was  secured  through  the  maintenance  of 
agents  in  London  by  many  of  the  colonies,  who  acted  much 
as  our  consuls  do. 

Furthermore,  admiralty  courts  had  been  estabUshed  in  Amer-  Admiralty 
ica  to  enforce  the  laws  against  smuggling  and  to  assist  in  carrying 
out  those  trade  Regulations  which  were  enacted  in  the  interests 
of  British  commerce.  The  government  possessed  an  even  more 
effective  method  of  control  —  in  theory  at  least  —  in  the 
charters  granted  to  the  separate  colonies  and  in  the  power  to 
appoint  colonial  governors.  It  was  claimed  by  many  English 
administrators  that  these  charters  could  be  withdrawn  or  Colonial 
annulled  at  will.  By  this  means  and  through  the  officials 
appointed  by  the  crown,  it  was  always  possible  for  the  home 
government  to  make  its  power  felt.  "Having  thrived  on 
England's  neglect  of  them,"  to  quote  Colonel  Barre  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  the  colonists  readily  took  offence  as  the 
hand  of  the  mother  country  began  to  weigh  more  heavily  upon 
them. 

All  the  necessary  laws  and  machinery  were  at  hand  for  con- 


Courts 


Charters 


78     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

The  Mercantile   troUing  the  colonics  in  the  interest  of  the  mother  country,  but 
S-actiTe*^  they  were  either  ignored  or  enforced  in  a  desultory  and  hap- 

hazard fashion.  The  Whigs,  or  merchant  class,  controlled  the 
government  throughout  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
So  long  as  they  were  able  to  maintain  their  power  at  home  and 
times  were  prosperous  and  markets  were  available  for  the 
exports  of  England,  no  one  worried  much  about  the  "far 
flung"  Empire.  It  seemed  more  important  in  Walpole's  time 
to  maintain  the  Hanoverian  dynasty  against  the  efforts  of  the 
exiled  Stuarts  to  overthrow  it  than  to  insist  upon  prerogative, 
or  to  engage  in  a  struggle  over  principle.  English  ministers 
were  more  engrossed  in  plans  for  attaining  party  success  than 
in  measures  of  imperial  defence,  or  in  binding  these  scattered 
territories  more  closely  to  the  mother  country.  Then  too, 
times  were  good  and  they  did  not  propose  to  worry  about 
colonial  matters.  So  long  as  the  Tory  minority  commanded 
good  prices  for  their  agricultural  products,  they  too  wasted 
little  time  or  thought  over  colonial  or  imperial  problems. 

But  bitter  experience,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  gradu- 
ally emphasized  the  necessity  of  an  abandonment  of  the  motto 
which  had  guided  Walpole  and  the  statesmen  of  his  generation 
"to  let  sleeping  dogs  lie."  The  colonies  began  to  be  aware  of 
this  in  the  period  between  1750  and  1770.  One  of  the  earliest 
evidences  of  the  change  was  the  more  stringent  enforcement  of 
the  laws  against  smuggling.  However,  this  policy  was  never 
fully  carried  out.  Custom-houses  for  the  collection  of  the  tariffs 
on  specified  goods  were  not  established  until  there  was  a  profit- 
able trade  in  these  goods,  and  then  the  customs  officers  con- 
nived with  the  colonial  merchants  in  the  practice  of  smuggling 
the  goods  into  the  country. 

There  had  been  times  when  the  home  government  realized 

the  importance  of  uniformity  in  the  handling  of  the  colonies  and 

Attempt  to         the  desirability  of  administrative  unity.     James  II  had  sent 

istrative  u^ty'   ^'^^  Edmuud  Andros  over  to  effect  this,  but  his  short  tenure  of 

office  soon  terminated  the  experiment.     Each  colony  continued 


RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  POWERS        79 


to  be  treated  as  a  separate  unit,  and  there  was  little  accom- 
plished in  the  direction  of  consolidation  or  unification. 

The  situation  was  complicated  by  the  aims  and  policies  of 
George  III,  the  new  ruler  of  England,  who  had  ascended  the 
throne  three  years  before  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

He    dishked    the    cabinet 

government  which  had 
developed  in  England 
during  the  reigns  of  the 
first  two  Georges,  for  he 
wished  to  rule  as  well  as 
reign.  From  babyhood 
his  mother  had  urged 
upon  him  the  motto, 
"  George,  be  king!  "  and 
he  determined  to  destroy 
the  power  of  the  ministry 
and  be  a  king  indeed,  as 
was  the  French  monarch. 
Poorly  educated,  narrow- 
minded,  unable  to  grasp 
the  difficult  problems  pre- 
sented by  the  colonial  sit- 
uation, he  nevertheless  possessed  industry  and  a  power  in  politi- 
cal intrigue.  In  justice  to  this  man,  whom  the  Americans  for- 
merly painted  as  a  tyrant  of  the  worst  possible  type,  it  must  be 
said  that  in  his  personal  character  he  excelled  most  of  the  states- 
men of  his  time.  To  attain  the  power  which  he  coveted  he 
entered  the  political  arena  and  by  open  bribery,  or  by  more 
sjtealthy  flattery  and  an  appeal  to  self-interest,  surrounded  him- 
self with  a  group  of  men  called  the  "  king's  friends."  He  was 
now  in  a  position  to  act  as  his  own  prime  minister,  as  this  group 
was  powerful  enough  to  give  his  measures  a  majority  in  parlia- 
ment. He  did  not  dispense  with  the  ofiice  of  prime  minister, 
however,  but  those  who  filled  it  were  gradually  reduced  to  the 


King  George  III  of  England 


Aims  and 
Character  of 
George  m 


8o      ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Measures  of 
Grenville 


Stamp  Act 
Congress 


position  of  the  king's  agents.  He  became  responsible  for  their 
acts,  as  had  not  been  true  in  the  case  of  his  royal  predecessors. 

38.  The  Opposition  in  America.  — In  1763  George  Grenville 
was  made  prime  minister,  and  in  1764,  with  the  support  of 
his  royal  master,  he  "adopted  a  series  of  measures  relating  to 
the  American  Colonies  which  produced  the  first  of  a  series  of 
explosions  that  led  to  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the  consequent 
dismemberment  of  the  British  Empire."  ^  He  believed  that  the 
colonies  should  be  taxed  to  make  up  the  deficit  caused  by  the 
French  and  Indian  War;  that  a  force  should  be  maintained  in 
the  colonies  for  their  defence;  and  that  the  entire  colonial 
administration  should  be  remodelled  in  the  interest  of  uni- 
formity and  of  efficiency.  Accordingly,  resolutions  were  offered 
in  parhament,  declaring  it  to  be  the  policy  of  the  government  to 
impose  a  stamp  tax,  and  in  1 765  such  an  act  was  passed.  A  new 
Sugar  Act  was  passed,  reducing  the  former  prohibitive  rates  on 
molasses  imported  from  the  West  Indies,  but  imposing  new  duties 
upon  coffee,  pimento,  white  sugar,  and  indigo  from  the  Spanish 
and  French  West  Indies,  and  upon  wine  from  the  Madeiras  and 
the  Azores  —  a  measure  which,  if  enforced,  would  bring  ruin 
to  many  a  New  England  merchant  and  trader.  A  measure  was 
also  enacted  authorizing  the  despatch  of  10,000  soldiers  to 
America  and  providing  that  one  third  of  the  cost  of  their  main- 
tenance should  be  paid  by  the  proceeds  of  the  revenue  laws  in 
force  in  America.  The  colonists,  while  protesting  in  the  famous 
Stamp  Act  Congress  against  England's  attempt  to  impose 
internal  taxes,  such  as  the  Stamp  Act,  acknowledged  the  right 
of  parliament  to  regulate  external  taxation.  Yet  smuggHng 
continued  on  such  a  scale  that  the  government  decided  to  put 
an  end  to  it.  The  protest  against  the  Stamp  Act  found  an 
approving  voice  in  parliament.  William  Pitt,  now  the  Earl  of 
Chatham,  came  from  a  sick-bed  to  argue  moderation  and  reason 
in  the  treatment  of  the  colonies,  and  the  act  was  repealed. 

In  1766  Townshend  became  the  leading  figure  in  the  cabi- 
^  See  Cross,  England,  pp.  746  fif. 


RIVAL    COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     8 1 

net.    He  was  in  hearty  accord  with  Granville's  colonial  policy  The  Townshend 

and  at  once  proposed  a  series  of  restrictive  measures  which  are  ^^ 

known  by  his  name.    He  undertook  to  defray  the  expenses  of 

maintaining  troops  in  America  by  external  taxes.    Port  duties 

were  therefore  levied  on  tea,  glass,  paper,  and  red  and  white 

lead.    A  Board  of  Commissioners*  was  estabhshed  at  Boston  to 

try  cases  of  smuggHng,  and  Writs  of  Assistance  ^  were  specifi-  Writs  of 

cally  legalized  for  use  in  obtaining  evidence  for  such  trials.    At  ^*s^***^® 

the  same  time,  in  order  to  punish  the  New  York  Assembly  for 

disobedience  in  the  matter  of  furnishing  supplies  to  the  British 

troops  quartered  on  that  colony,  Townshend  secured  the  passage 

of  a  law  suspending  the  law-making  power  of   the  Assembly 

until  it  should  have  followed  instructions  concerning  supplies. 

Townshend   died   suddenly  in   1767,  but  his  pohcy  was  not 

relaxed. 

The  colonies  were  united  in  their  hostiUty  to  the  Townshend 
measures.     Prominent  merchants  in  Boston,  New  York,  and 
other  important  towns  formed  agreements  to  import  none  of 
the  taxed  goods  until  the  act  should  be  repealed.    The  women  Non-inter- 
formed  societies  called  "Daughters  of  Liberty"  and  pledged  ^^® 
themselves   to   use   only  "  made-in- America "  goods.     Samuel 
Adams,  a  prominent  brewer  of  Boston,  prepared  for  the  Massa- 
chusetts Assembly  a  set  of  resolutions  addressed  to  the  ministry, 
a  petition  to  George  III,  and  a  letter  to  be  circulated  in  the  Petitions  to 
various  colonial  assembhes.    The  government  ordered  the  gov-  ^°«^*^** 
ernors  to  prevent  the  assemblies  from  meeting,  and  troops  were 
stationed  in  Boston  in  1768.    The  spirit  of  revolt  flamed  out 
in  the  colonies.     British  revenue  officers  were  mobbed  while 
attempting  to  collect  duties,  or  as  they  tried  to  seize  smug- 
glers.    Soldiers  and  citizens  rioted  in  the  streets  of  Boston,  and 
five  colonists  were  killed.     When  the  government  seemed  in- 
clined to  withdraw  from  its  position  and  repealed  all  the  duties 

1  These  writs  were  in  effect  warrants  signed  by  the  Court,  giving  the 
officers  of  customs  the  right  to  search  private  houses  when  suspected  of 
containing  smuggled  goods. 


The  First 
Continental 


82      ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

except  that  on  tea,  ships  bringing  tea  were  captured  by  daring 
Americans  and  their  cargoes  dumped  overboard  or  boldly  car- 
ried ashore  to  be  sold  without  one  penny  of  taxation. 

Attempts  to  unify  the  American  colonies  by  means  of  con- 
gresses had  been  made  for  nearly  a  century.  At  the  time  of  the 
War  of  the  Palatinate  and  of  the  last  French  and  Indian  War, 
congresses  had  been  held  to  consider  means  of  defence  against 
Indian  raids  and  to  lay  plans  for  a  more  effective  union.  The 
Stamp  Act  Congress  (1765),  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made,  brought  together  representatives  from  nine  colonies  in 
New  York.  Committees  were  appointed  in  the  Massachusetts 
towns,  and  later  in  most  of  the  colonies,  to  correspond  with  other 
towns  in  order  to  keep  them  informed  concerning  the  latest 
actions  of  the  British  and  to  make  plans  for  united  resistance. 
These  brought  forth  in  1774  the  first  truly  continental  con- 

Congress  gress,  for  twelve  colonies  were  represented  in  it.     This  congress 

drew  up  a  statement  of  the  position  of  Americans  concerning 
representation  and  taxation,  petitioned  the  king  for  reforms, 
and  appealed  to  the  people  of  the  province  of  Quebec  to 
unite  with  them.  Before  they  adjourned  they  provided  for 
a  second  meeting  in  1775.  United  action  by  the  colonies 
at  this  time  was  hastened  by  five  acts  of  parliament  passed 
in  1774,  which,  because  of  their  oppressive  character,  are 
known  as  the  Five  Oppressive  or  Intolerable  Acts.       These 

The  Intolerable  were  (i)  The  Boston  Port  Act,  closing  Boston  harbor  and 
compelling  all  commerce  to  reach  Boston  from  the  Port  of 
Salem;  (2)  The  Regulating  Act,  setting  asidp  the  self- 
governing  features  of  the  Massachusetts  charter;  (3)  The 
Transportation  Act,  providing  that  all  government  officers  charged 
with  crime  might  be  transported  to  another  colony  or  to  Britain 
for  trial;  (4)  The  Quartering  Act,  billeting  soldiers  on  the  in- 
habitgints  of  Boston;  and  (5)  The  Quebec  Act,  adding  the  re- 
gion north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  to  the 
province  of  Quebec,  thus  virtually  nullifying  all  land  grants  in 
the  northern  colonial  charters. 


Acts 


RIVAL    COLONIAL    AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     83 

War  had  already  begun  when  the  members  of  thfe  second  The  second 
continental  congress  assembled  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1775,  con^^ess** 
and  there  was  need  for  action.  It  accordingly  arranged  for 
financing  the  war  by  borrowing  money  and  issuing  continental 
currency,  and  authorized  the  formation  of  a  continental  army 
and  navy.  The  following  year  the  tide  had  set  in  toward  inde- 
pendence in  response  to  the  bitter  and  insulting  reception  of  all 
colonial  petitions  by  the  king  and  because  of  his  employment 
against  the  colonies  of  several  thousand  mercenary  soldiers, 
from  Hesse  in  Germany.  Thomas  Paine,  a  young  Eng-  Thomas  Paine 
hshman,  somewhat  discredited  at  home  because  of  his  reli- 
gious and  social  ideas  and  but  recently  landed  in  America, 
published  in  January,  1776,  a  brief  treatise  called  Common 
Sense,  urging  independence.  In  June  Richard  Henry  Lee 
proposed  a  resolution  "that  these  colonies  are,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states,  and  they 
are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and 
that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  state  of 
Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved."  July  4,  Declaration  of 
1776,  saw  the  passage  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  I'^dependence 
which  was  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  Congress,  headed  by 
Jefferson.  England  had  lost  her  American  colonies  south  of 
the  St.  Lawrence.  The  importance  of  this  step  from  the  stand- 
point of  European  history  was  that  it  enabled  the  United  States 
to  isolate  Great  Britain  by  a  series  of  foreign  alliances,  especially 
with  France. 

39.  The  American  Revolution.  —  The  first  two  years  of 
fighting  were  marked  by  skirmishes  around  Boston,  an  ill- 
advised  American  invasion  of  Canada,  the  capture  of  New  York 
by  General  Howe,  and  the  brilliant  raids  of  Washington  on  Tren- 
ton and  Princeton.  In  the  summer  of  1777  England  set  herself 
determinedly  to  work  to  separate  New  England,  the  hot-bed  of 
the  rebellion,  from  the  rest  of  the  colonies.  A  threefold  plan  Campaign  of 
of  campaign  was  arranged:  General  Burgoyne  was  to  move  south 
from  Canada  by  Lake  Champlain  and  the  upper  Hudson  Valley; 


1776-77 


84     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

St.  Leger  was  to  move  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  Ontario, 
thence  to  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  follow  that  river  to  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Hudson,  effecting  a  junction  with  Burgoyne; 
while  Howe  was  to  move  from  New  York  up  the  Hudson  to  meet 
the  other  armies.  Through  the  carelessness  of  the  British  war 
office,  Howe  did  not  receive  the  details  of  the  plan,  and  instead 
went  on  a  campaign  of  his  own  to  capture  Philadelphia  by  a 
roundabout  sea  route  through  the  Chesapeake.  This  campaign 
was  successful  as  far  as  the  capture  of  Philadelphia  was  con- 
cerned, but  it  really  crippled  the  important  campaign  of  that  year 
by  the  withdrawal  of  Howe's  forces.  St.  Leger  was  turned  back 
in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  and  Burgoyne  was  forced  to  surrender 
his  entire  army  at  Saratoga.  This  victory  turned  the  eyes  of 
France  upon  America  and  brought  aid  in  the  form  of  a  generous 
loan  of  money  and  in  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  against 
Great  Britain.  After  the  failure  of  the  northern  campaign,  Great 
Britain  gave  her  attention  to  the  southern  colonies  and  was 
in  the  main  successful  until  Cornwallis  was  trapped  on  the 
Yorktown  peninsula  by  Washington's  army  while  the  French 
fleet  prevented  reenforcements  from  reaching  him.  The  sur- 
render of  Cornwallis  marked  the  close  of  British  efforts  in 
America.  France  was  reaping  a  royal  revenge  upon  her  ancient 
rival.  A  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleet  swept  the  English 
channel  clear  of  British  ships  and  seized  British  colonies.  The 
states  of  the  north  of  Europe  took  issue  with  the  British  claim 
to  the  right  of  search  of  neutral  vessels  on  the  high  seas  by 
establishing  a  league  known  as  the  "Armed  Neutrality,"  which 
defended  the  doctrine  that  "Free  ships  make  free  goods." 
Finding  herself  either  at  war  or  on  bad  terms  with  most  of 
Europe,  Great  Britain  was  finally  forced  to  make  peace.  By 
the  treaty  ending  the  war,  England  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States,  relinquished  Florida  and  Minorca 
to  Spain,  and  the  disputed  territory  west  of  the  Appalachians 
to  the  United  States. 
England's  failure  to  reconquer  her  American  colonies  was  a 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND    COMMERCIAL    POWERS     85 

death  blow  to  the  ambitions  of  George  III  in  the  direction  of 
absolute  monarchy.     Although  he  continued  to  reign  until  1820, 
never  again  was  he  in  a  position  to  control  affairs.     A  political 
house-cleaning  soon  followed  under  the  direction  of  the  younger  The  Younger 
Pitt,  who  has  been  described  as  "not  a  chip  of  the  old  block,  ^" 


Territory  Lost 
Territory  Retained 


The  British  Colonial  Empire  in  1783,  Showing  Territory  Lost 
BY  THE  American  Revolution 


but  the  old  block  itself."  He  weeded  out  of  the  government 
service  many  of  the  corrupt  politicians  who  had  disgraced  the 
old  Whig  rule.  Especially  important  to  England  was  the  change 
in  colonial  policy  wrought  by  the  American  revolution.  She  had 
learned  a  hard  lesson  in  the  bitter  school  of  experience.  No 
longer  did  she  regard  her  colonies  merely  as  a  source  of  revenue, 
but  treated  them  instead  as  outgrowths  of  the  mother  country, 
entitled^  to  a  large  degree  of  self-government.  Adam  Smith's 
attack  upon  the  mercantile  system  needed  no  stronger  indorse- 
ment. Events  in  America  were  his  justification.  In  1776  he 
had  proclaimed  the  death  knell  of  mercantilism,  even  as  the 
American  colonies  had  proclaimed  the  death  knell  of  foreign 
control  over  a  large  part  of  the  American  continent. 


86       ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND   QUESTIONS   FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  Give  arguments  to  prove  the  decay  of  the  older  colonial  powers. 
2.  Describe  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  explorers  in  North  America.  3.  De- 
scribe in  some  detail  the  French  colonial  system  in  America.  4.  Treat  in  a 
similar  manner  the  British  colonial  system.  5.  Describe  the  empire  of  the 
Mughals.  6.  Comment  upon  the  statement  that  the  chief  importance  of 
the  Palatinate  War  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  a  forecast  of  the  greater  strug- 
gle to  come.  7.  Read  Southey's  poem,  "Blenheim."  8.  Discuss  the  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  the  "balance  of  power"  theory  has  harmed  more  than  it 
has  benefited  Europe.  When  was  it  originated?  9.  Explain  how  the  Methuen 
Treaty  gave  England  a  commercial  dictatorship  over  Portugal.  10.  Why  did 
the  English  people  prefer  George  of  Hanover  to  James  Edward  Stuart  for 
their  ruler?  1 1 .  How  did  Frederick  II  win  the  designation  of  "  The  Great "  ? 
12.  Give  a  longer  biographical  sketch  of  Clive.  13.  Discuss  the  terms  of 
the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  as  a  remote  cause  of  the  American  Revolution. 
14.  Explain  the  diplomatic  revolution  which  occurred  in  Europe  prior  to 
the  opening  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  15.  What  possessions  in  India  does 
France  still  retain?  16.  Read  the  speech  made  by  William  Pitt  in  defence 
of  the  colonies.  17.  Compare  the  plan  for  colonial  union  which  James  II 
attempted  to  put  into  operation  with  that  proposed  by  Franklin  at  the 
Albany  Congress.  18.  Read  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  point 
out  specific  instances  of  the  offences  charged  therein  against  George  III. 
19.  Ludlow  says,  "Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  two  things  must  equally  sur- 
prise the  reader  on  studying  the  history  of  the  war  of  American  independ- 
ence, —  the  first,  that  England  should  ever  have  considered  it  possible  to 
succeed  in  subduing  her  revolted  colonies;  the  second,  that  she  should  not 
have  succeeded  in  doing  so,"  Interpret  this  statement.  20.  Look  up 
the  career  of  Wilkes  and  his  connection  with  George  Ill's  attempt  at 
personal  government. 

Collateral  Reading 
I.   Colonial  Policies. 

Cunningham,  Growth  of  Enghsh  Industry  and  Commerce,  Vol. 
II,  part  I,  pp.  331  ff.  Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England,  pp.  56- 
76.  Thwaites,  The  Colonies,  pp.  45-63.  Shepherd,  Latin  America, 
pp.  19-29.  Seignobos,  Contemporary  Civilization,  pp.  29-41. 
Becker,  Beginnings  of  American  People,  Chapter  IV. 
II.  Louis  XIV's  Wars. 

Robinson  and  Beard,    Development  of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I, 
pp.    14-49.      Grant,    History  of    Europe,   pp.    500-3,    507-18. 
Cross,  History  of    England    and    Greater    Britain,    pp.    617-9, 
629-36,  644-8,  652-72. 
III.  The  Struggle  for  Indla. 

Seeley,  pp.  197-216.     Robinson  and  Beard,   Vol.  I,  pp.  80-100. 
Seignobos,  pp.  41-7.     Beard,  Introduction  to  English  Historians 


RIVAL   COLONIAL   AND   COMMERCIAL   POWERS     87 

(Lyall),  pp.  443-51-     Hayes,  Modem  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  315-7. 
Longman,  Frederick  the  Great,  pp.  185-205.     Cross,  pp.  720-2, 
734-6- 
rV.  The  Struggle  for  America. 

Cross,  pp.  722,  729-33.  Longman,  pp.  167-84.  Robinson  and 
Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  101-21.  Beard  (Mahon),  pp.  452-65.  Thwaites, 
pp.  252-7.  Hassall,  The  Making  of  the  British  Empire,  pp.  41-57. 
Bradley,  Canada,  pp.  34-65.  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union, 
pp.  22-41.  Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  312-5. 
V.  Teee  Wars  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  60-79.    Priest,  Germany  since  1740, 
pp.  10-22.     Longman,  pp.  30-63,  89-166.     Guedalla,  Partition  of 
Europe,  pp.  36-67.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  354-62. 
VI.  The  American  Revolution. 

Hart,  pp.  43-110.  Van  Tyne,  The  American  Revolution.  Fiske, 
The  American  Revolution.  Seeley,  pp.  141-160.  Ludlow,  The 
War  for  American  Independence.  Guedalla,  pp.  92-1 12.  Becker, 
Chapter  VI.     Cross,  pp.  738-81.    Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  322-40. 

Source  Studies 

1.  How  Europe  began  to  extend  its  commerce  over  the  whole  world. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings  in  Modem  European  History, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  90-5. 

2.  England  gains  a  foothold  in  India.     Ihid.,  pp.  95-101. 

3.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.    Ibid.,  pp.  39-53. 

4.  A  Spanish  colonial  official's  account  of  English  trade  in  the  West 

Indies.     Ihid.,  pp.  73-6. 

5.  India  under  the  later  Mughals.     Ihid.,  pp.  101-4. 

6.  England  and  Siraj-ud-daula;  The  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta;  Plassey. 

Ihid.,  pp.  105-10.  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History, 
pp.  590-3:  Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  His- 
tory, pp.  245-7. 

7.  Marquette  on  the  Mississippi.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp. 

116-21. 

8.  A  Frenchman's  account  of  Braddock's  defeat.    Ibid.,  pp.  126-7. 

9.  General  Wolfe  and  the  battle  at  Quebec.     /ftjJ.,  pp.  127-30;  Colby, 

pp.  247-50;  Cheyney,  pp.  597-601. 

10.  Louis  XV's  view  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.     Robinson  and  Beard, 

Readings,  Vol.  I,  pp.  77-80. 

11.  Franklin's  Albany  plan.     West,  Source  Book  in  American  History, 

PP-  358-63. 

12.  Sugar  act.    /6wf.,  pp.  369-72. 

13.  The  stamp    act.     Ihid.,  pp.  373-80.      Hill,   Liberty  Documents, 

Chapter  XII. 

14.  The  non-importation  policy.     West,  pp.  380-6. 

15.  Committees  of  Correspondence.    Ibid.,  pp.  387-94. 


88      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

i6.  Tea  riots.     Ibid.,  pp.   394-5.     Robinson    and    Beard,   Readings, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  130-2. 

17.  Continental  congresses.     West,  pp.  396-442. 

18.  Pitt  on  withdrawing  English  troops  from  Boston.     Robinson  and 

Beard,  Readings,  Vol.  I,  pp.  132-3. 

19.  Burke's  speech  on  conciliation.     Cheyney,  pp.  628-31. 

20.  Policy  of  taxation.     Grenville.     Lee,  Source  Book  of  English  His- 

tory, pp.  474-5. 

21.  Pitt  on  conciliation.     Ibid,,  pp.  475-7.     Tuell  and  Hatch,  Readings 

in  English  History,  pp.  359-63. 

22.  The  right  to  tax.     (Mansfield)  Lee,  pp.  477-80. 

23.  Declaration  of  Independence.     West,  pp.  359-63.     Hill,  Chapter 

XIV. 

24.  Extracts  from  the  diary  of  a  Tory  refugee.     Cheyney,  pp.  631-3. 

25.  George  HI  and  the  American  Revolution.     Ibid.,  pp.  634-44.     Rob- 

inson and  Beard,  Readings,  Vol.  I,  pp.  133-5. 

26.  Cornwallis's  own  report  of  his  surrender.     Ibid.,  pp.  1^5-7. 

27.  Peace   negotiations.     White    and   Notestein,   Source   Problems   in 

English  History,  pp.  283-328. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  Show  on  an  outline  map  the  colonial  empires  of  the  Dutch,  Spanish, 
French,  Portuguese,  and  English  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 2.  Show  on  an  outline  map  of  India  the  empire  of  the  Mughals 
and  the  British  and  French  spheres  of  influence  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 3.  Show  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  in  Europe;  in  America. 
4.  Show  the  strategic  points  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  in  America  and 
the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Paris  (1763).  5.  Show  the  strategic  points  and 
principal  campaigns  of  the  American  Revolution.  6.  Show  the  terms  of 
the  Peace  of  Paris  (1783). 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Spread  of  colonization  to  1700,  p.  128. 
The  Mughal  empire  in  1700;  India,  1700-92,  p.  137.  Principal  seats  of  war 
in  Europe,  1700-21,  p.  129.  Europe  in  1740,  p.  130.  Principal  seats  of  war 
in  Europe,  1740-63,  p.  132.  Treaty  adjustments,  1713-63,  p.  133.  Struggle 
for  colonial  dominion,  1700-63,  p.  136.  British  colonies  in  North  America, 
1763-75,  p.  194.  Campaigns  of  the  American  Revolution,  1775-81, 
p.  195.     Peace  of  1783,  p.  196. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  Colonial  empires,  p.  16. 
Europe  in  171 5,  p.  21.  Growth  of  British  empire  in  India,  p.  30.  Europe 
in  the  Americas,  p.  31. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  Colonial  empires,  p.  38. 
Colonization  of  North  America,  p.  42.  North  America,  1750-83,  p.  43. 
India  in  the  eighteenth  century,  p.  45.    The  world  at  the  treaty  of  Paris 


RIVAL  COLONIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL   POWERS      89 

1763,  p.  39-  Battle  of  Blenheim,  p.  xviii.  Territorial  acquisitions  of  Louis 
XIV,  p.  13. 

Gardiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  The  Netherlands, 
1702,  p.  39,  Western  Europe,  1702,  p.  40.  Western  Europe  by  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht,  p.  41.  Europe  in  1730,  p.  43.  The  Silesian  and  Seven  Years' 
Wars,  p.  44.  Eastern  and  Central  America,  1755,  p.  45.  Eastern  and 
Central  America,  1763,  p.  46.  The  World,  1772,  p.  47.  Treaty  of  1783, 
p.  48.  Battle  of  Blenheim,  p.  78.     Siege  of  Quebec,  p.  80. 

Robertson-Bartholomew,  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Oxford 
Press.     The  Partitions  of  Poland,  1772-95,  No.  27. 

Bibliography 

Beard.     Introduction  to  the  English  Historians.     Macmillan. 

Becker,     Beginnings  of  American  People.     Houghton  Mifflin. 

Bradley.     Canada.    Holt. 

Cheyney.     Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 

Colby.     Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  History.     Longmans. 

Cross.     A  History  of  England  and  Greater  Britain.     Macmillan. 

Cunningham.  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce,  Volume  II.  Cam- 
bridge University  Press. 

Fiske.     The  American  Revolution.     In  two  volumes.     Houghton  Mifflin. 

Grant.     A  History  of  Europe.     Longmans. 

Guedalla.     Partition  of  Europe.     Oxford  University  Press. 

Hart.     Formation  of  the  Union.     Longmans. 

Hassall.     Making  of  the  British  Empire.     Scribner. 

Hayes,  The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe.  Volume  I, 
Macmillan. 

Hill.     Liberty  Documents.    Longmans. 

Johnson.     Age  of  Enlightened  Despot,  1 660-178 g.     Macmillan. 

Lee.     Source  Book  of  English  History.     Holt. 

Longman.     Frederick  the  Great.     Longmans. 

Ludlow.     The  War  for  American  Independence.     Longmans. 

Priest.     Germany  since  1740.     Ginn. 

Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe,  Volume  I.     Ginn. 

Robinson  and  Beard.  Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  Volume  I. 
Ginn. 

Seeley.     Expansion  of  England.     Little,  Brown. 

Seignobos.     Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 

Shepherd.     Latin  America.    Holt. 

Smith.    Student's  History  of  India.     Oxford  University  Press. 

Thwaites.     The  Colonies.    Longmans. 

Tuell  and  Hatch.     Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 

Van  Tyne.     The -American  Revolution.    Harper. 

West.     Source  Book  in  American  History.    AUyn  and  Bacon. 

White  and  Notestein.    Source  Problems  in  English  History.    Harper. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  THE  END  OF  THE  OLD 
ORDER  IN  FRANCE 


40.  The  Old  Order  and  the  Reform  Movement  in  France.  — 
We  have  already  noted  how  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury certain  parts  of  Europe  began  to  be  stirred  by  a  reform 
movement.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  how  important 
was  the  share  of  the  French  writers  in  spreading  throughout 
Europe  these  new  ideas  of  how  society,  business,  and  govern- 
ment should  be  readjusted,  remodelled,  and  transformed.  The 
old  adage  that  a  prophet  is  not  without  bonor  save  in  his  own 
country  and  among  his  own  kindred  seems  to  have  been  true 
here,  as  it  was  some  time  before  these  teachings  were  applied  to 
conditions  at  home.  French  society,  the  French  system  of 
government,  French  industry,  all  called  loudly  for  reorganiza- 
tion and  reform.  This  period  of  French  history,  before  1789, 
is  usually  referred  to  by  French  writers  as  the  ancien  regime 
or  old  order.  Some  light  has  already  been  thrown  upon  the 
conditions  which  made  this  old  order  vexatious  and  intolerable. 

41.  Class  Privileges.  —  In  the  first  place  there  existed  in 
France  the  most  pronounced  inequality  between  classes. 
French  society  was  about  where  it  was  five  centuries  before 
when  feudalism  was  at  its  height  and  when  inequality  was  the 
only  principle  recognized  in  according  to  each  citizen  his  posi- 
tion in  the  social  scale.  The  clergy  formed  a  separate  class,  as 
did  also  the  nobility  and  the  bourgeoisie  or  townspeople.  En- 
trance into  the  ranks  of  the  nobility  was  secured  by  birth  or 
through  the  payment  of  large  sums  of  money;  the  more  influen- 
tial positions  in  the  church  were  reserved  for  the  younger  sons  of 


THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  91 

noble  families.  It  therefore  came  about  that  these  two  classes 
had  much  in  common.  It  seemed  to  the  average  citizen,  that  the 
whole  government,  the  very  country  in  which  he  dwelt,  had  been 
specially  set  apart  for  the  enjoyment  and  participation  of  the 
few.  Had  not  a  special  place  of  residence  been  erected  for  them 
at  Versailles  upon  a  scale  of  unprecedented  magnificence?  Did 
they  not  set  the  fashions  in  dress  and  prescribe  the  rules  of 
etiquette  for  the  rest  of  society?  When  it  is  borne  in  mind  Namber« 
that  only  600,000  out  of  a  population  of  25,000,000  were  mem- 
bers of  the  privileged  orders  or  classes,  —  in  other  words  but  one 
in  forty,  —  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  bourgeois  viewed  the 
situation  as  he  did.  A  nobleman  was  looked  upon  as  a  being  far  Social  Prestige 
removed  from  the  common  herd  and  entitled  to  a  pecuUar 
deference  and  consideration.  And  yet  the  nobles  as  a  class  did 
Uttle  to  merit  this  special  favor.  They  lived  in  luxury  and  ease, 
disdaining  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  development  of  their 
country,  whether  it  was  along  political,  agricultural,  or  com- 
mercial Unes,  preferring  rather  to  while  away  their  time  at 
court  in  intrigue  or  gossip,  varying  the  monotony  occasionally 
by  fighting  duels  or  indulging  in  some  wild  escapade.  From 
the  high  pedestal  upon  which  they  stood  they  looked  down 
upon  and  despised  the  men  and  women  who  toiled.  They  have 
been  aptly  compared  to  the  drones  in  the  hive. 

42.  Feudal  Survivals.  —  Feudalism  had  originally  conferred 
upon  this  class  much  of  its  superiority  and  power.  Although 
outgrown  as  a  system  of  government  and  regarded  by  the 
thinking  classes  as  an  obstacle  to  satisfactory  progress  in  trade 
or  agriculture,  enough  of  its  privileges  survived  to  make  it  a 
strong  bulwark  for  the  upper  classes.  It  seems  strange  that 
under  an  absolute  monarchy  so  many  of  its  customs  should  have 
persisted,  but  no  effort  had  been  put  forth  to  abolish  them 
when  a  Henry  IV  or  Louis  XIV  were  gathering  into  their  own 
hands  the  reins  of  authority.  For  example  there  was  the 
right  to  hunt.  Not  only  was  this  right  enjoyed  by  the  king,  Right  to  Hunt 
but  every  great  lord  as  well  retained  the   privilege  of  over- 


92      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

running  the  little  farms  in  his  neighborhood  in  the  pursuit  of 
rabbits  or  deer  in  season.  In  such  districts  the  peasant  farmer 
was  forbidden  to  build  fences  to  enclose  his  fields,  or  to  wage 
warfare  upon  some  of  the  animal  pests,  which,  while  they 
furnished  amusement  for  the  upper  classes,  wreaked  destruction 
upon  his  growing  crops.  Many  of  the  duties  which  these 
peasants  had  formerly  owed  their  masters  or  overlords  were  now 
discharged  by  payments  of  money.  It  was  particularly  galling 
to  the  peasant  to  continue  indefinitely  the  payment  of  money 
in  discharge  of  such  obligations  as  a  certain  number  of  nights 
spent  by  their  ancestors  years  before  in  beating  the  marshes  to 
prevent  the  frogs  from  keeping  her  ladyship  awake;  or  again 
to  pay  the  feudal  lord  a  sum  of  money  when  a  parcel  of  ground 
was  sold  over  which  he  exercised  no  real  control  and  to  which 
he  had  contributed  nothing  either  for  its  maintenance  or  its 
improvement.  It  is  estimated  that  icx),ooo  nobles  owned  one 
half  of  the  land  of  France,  and  this  ownership  carried  with  it  in 
many  cases  the  enjoyment  of  privileges  of  this  nature.  Alto- 
gether the  peasant  paid  to  the  overlord  fourteen  per  cent  of  his 
entire  income  from  his  little  holding. 

The  existence  of  these  and  numerous  other  prerogatives 
divided  France  into  two  great  classes,  the  privileged  and  the 
unprivileged.  The  most  important  privilege  enjoyed  by  the 
upper  classes  was  that  of  exemption  from  taxation.  This 
right  was  enjoyed  by  the  nobility  and  clergy  and  the  wealthier 
bourgeois  families.  The  injustice  of  the  arrangement  becomes 
apparent  when  we  examine  the  state  of  French  finances,  the 
taxes  which  were  laid,  and  their  method  of  collection. 

43.  Financial  Mismanagement.  —  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV 
had  been  marked  by  extensive  military  enterprises,  each  one  of 
which  had  called  for  the  expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money. 
These  ventures  had  not  always  turned  out  to  the  advantage  of 
the  French  people,  and  the  resulting  debt  had  been  correspond- 
ingly heavy.  Louis  XV  continued  in  the  same  path  as  his 
predecessor,  recklessly  and  without  foresight  plunging  France 


THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION  93 

into  wars  which  not  only  lost  her  valuable  colonies  but  increased 
tremendously  the  indebtedness  of  the  French  nation.  At  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  the  national  debt  was  esti- 
mated at  $620,000,000;  by  1789  nearly  $50,000,000  was  paid 
out  annually  for  interest. 

Then  too,  a  great  deal  of  waste  and  extravagance  was  appar- 
ent in  the  conduct  of  the  government.  Vast  sums  were  spent  Pensions 
upon  the  court,  not  only  for  services  actually  rendered,  but  in 
the  form  of  pensions.  From  seventeen  to  eighteen  thousand 
people  were  in  residence  at  Versailles,  of  whom  sixteen  thou- 
sand were  attached  to  the  court  and  in  the  pay  of  the  state, 
performing  the  numerous  services  required  by  its  luxury  and 
magnificence.  The  others  were  hangers-on,  awaiting  the  day 
when  some  act  of  royal  favor  should  confer  upon  them  the 
coveted  pension.  The  sums  required  were  enormous.  "Madame 
Lamballe,  for  instance,  was  given  $30,000  a  year  for  acting  as 
superintendent  of  the  queen's  household.  Persons  were 
appointed  to  offices  the  very  duties  of  which  had  been  forgotten. 
One  young  man  was  given  a  salary  of  $3600  for  an  office  whose 
sole  duty  consisted  in  signing  his  name  twice  a  year.  The 
tutors  of  the  king's  children  received  $33,000  yearly,  and  the 
head  chambermaid  of  the  queen  made  $10,000  off  the  an- 
nual sale  of  partly  burned  candles."  Instances  of  this  sort 
might  be  multiplied.  Those  which  have  been  cited  belong  to 
a  period  when  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  economy"  began  to  be 
appreciated. 

44.  The  System  of  Taxation.  —  The  taxes  laid  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  meet  these  tremendous  demands  upon  it  were  of  two 
kinds,  direct  and  indirect.  The  most  important  of  the  former 
were  the  taille,  or  land  tax,  which  dated  from  the  time  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  the  capitation,  or  poll  tax,  and  the  twenti- 
eth, the  two  last  named  being  devices  of  Louis  XIV.  Then  there 
was  the  hated  corvee,  or  forced  labor  upon  government  works. 
The  taille,  although  roughly  defined  as  a  land  tax,  was  not  the 
same  throughout  the  country.     In  the  south  it  was  levied  upon 


The  TaUle 


94     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN    EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

real  estate,  and  property  values  were  assessed  and  taxed  much  as 
they  are  today.  Elsewhere,  however,  it  was  a  personal  tax, 
estimated  and  apportioned  according  to  the  whim  of  the  tax 
gatherer.  He  did  not  base  the  levy  upon  any  data,  but  upon 
wealth  which  might  or  might  not  exist.  The  presence  of 
chicken  feathers  about  the  peasant's  cottage  or  a  smug,  well-fed 
look  sufficed  to  warrant  an  increase  in  the  amount  demanded. 

Capitatibn  Tax  The  capitation  tax  was  apportioned  as  follows.  The  entire 
population  of  France  was  grouped  into  twenty- three  classes; 
the  tax  rate  was  fixed  for  each  class,  each  member  of  a  class 
paying  into  the  government  a  fixed  sum.  The  Dauphin  belonged 
to  the  highest  class  and  was  supposed  to  pay  into  the  treasury 
2000  livres^;  those  in  the  lowest  class  were  not  required  to  pay 

Exemptions  anything.  The  practice  of  exemptions,  however,  resulted  in  the 
collection  being  restricted  to  the  lower  classes,  and  compara- 
tively httle  came  in  from  the  nobles.  This  form  of  taxation 
called  for  from  twenty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  peasant's  income. 

The  Gabeiie  The  gabelk,  or  tax  upon  salt,  was  perhaps  the  most  notorious 

of  the  taxing  devices  of  the  central  government.  The  sale  of 
salt  was  a  government  monopoly.  Every  family  was  obliged  to 
buy  seven  pounds  of  salt  a  year  for  every  one  of  its  members 
over  seven  years  old.  ,There  was  no  question  as  to  whether  this 
amount  was  needed.  What  made  the  gabelle  still  more  odious 
was  that  the  price  of  salt  varied  in  the  different  provinces,  and 
for  no  apparent  reason.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Paris  in  the 
north  the  people  were  paying  at  the  rate  of  60  livres  for  the  same 
quantity  which  in  Brittany  was  selHng  at  from  two  to  three 
livres.  Severe  penalites  were  imposed  upon  those  who  were 
found  guilty  of  infringements  of  the  law. 

One  form  of  indirect  taxes  was  the  duties  laid  upon  food 
products,  as,  for  example,  when  they  were  shipped  from  one 
province  to  another,  or  when  they  were  brought  into  certain 


^  The  livre  was  about  the  equivalent  of  the  franc.  The  latter  came 
into  use  at  the  period  of  the  Revolution.  81  livres  were  equivalent  to 
80  francs. 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


95 


cities.  In  the  Middle  Ages  France  had  been  a  collection  of 
semi-independent  provinces.  These  boundary  Hnes  were  still 
retained  for  purposes  of  taxation  and  administration.  The 
burdensome  nature  of  many  of  the  customs  duties  may  The  Customs 
be  illustrated  by  a  single  instance.  Wine  was  taxed  at  the  ^""*' 
moment  of  manufacture;  when  it  was  sold;  from  thirty-five 
to  forty  times  on  the  road  from  Languedoc  to  Paris;  at  the 
entrance  to  the  city;  and  finally  when  sold  by  the  retailer  to 
the  consumer.  Wine  worth  150  francs  at  the  place  of  pro- 
duction paid  twenty-two  francs  in  customs  duties  by  the  time 
it  reached  Paris.  To  cap  the  climax  the  law  prescribed  just 
how  much  wine  should  be  consumed  by  each  family,  and 
if  more  was  drunk  the  extra  amount  was  subjected  to  a  spe- 
cial tax. 

To  these  taxes  laid  by  the  authority  of  the  central  government  The  Tithe 
should  be  added  the  tithe  which  was  paid  to  the  church  and  the 
many  feudal  dues  which  bore  so  heavily  on  the  country  districts. 
The  noble  took  toll  at  the  wine  press,  at  the  mill,  and  often  at 
the  oven.  In  some  cases  these  feudal  privileges  were  all  that 
remained  to  him  of  his  former  estate  and  power. 

The  system,  or  absence  of  it,  which  marked  the  collection  of  System  of 
these  taxes  made  the  burden  so  much  the  harder  to  bear.  Since  ^°"®*^**°" 
1697  the  indirect  taxes  had  been  farmed  out  to  contractors  for 
terms  of  six  years.  These  contractors  paid  a  fixed  sum  into  the 
treasury  and  were  expected  to  enrich  themselves  by  grinding 
larger  amounts  out  of  the  peasants.  The  land  tax  was  enforced 
''in  such  a  manner  as  to  discourage  land  improvement."  In 
cases  where  the  taxes  were  not  farmed  out,  their  assessment 
and  collection  were  under  the  supervision  of  the  intendant,  whose 
power  "to  exempt,  change,  add,  or  diminish"  made  the  burden 
fall  unequally  upon  the  people.  Each  parish  was  supposed  to 
collect  its  share  of  the  taxes,  and,  as  the  collectors  were  per- 
sonally made  liable  for  the  amounts  to  be  collected,  the  service 
became  ''the  despair  and  almost  the  ruin  of  those  obUged  to 
perform  it." 


96     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

45.  Economic  Burdens.  —  The  existence  of  customs  lines 
between  provinces  by  which  duties  were  collected  on  the  move- 
ment of  food  and  raw  materials  from  one  part  of  France  to  the 
other,  the  practice  of  monopoHzing  and  speculating  in  the  very 

Speculation       necessities  of  life,  such  as  grain,  and  the  organization  of  industry 
In  Grain  ^^  mediaeval  lines  (sec.  14),  with  the  pernicious  system  just  de- 

scribed, placed  the  French  people  at  a  tremendous  disadvantage 
economically.  The  customs  barriers  prevented  the  inhabitants 
of  a  province  in  which  the  crop  was  light  from  profiting  by  the 
plentiful  supply  of  their  next-door  neighbors,  and.  for  the  same 
reason  these  neighbors  were  denied  the  market  which  was 
rightfully  theirs.  Add  to  this  the  persistent  efforts  to  corner 
the  wheat  and  grain  market  to  which  royalty  itself  was  too 
often  a  party,  and  the  want  and  starvation  which  were  so 
common  are  easily  explained. 

46.  Organization  of  the  Government.  —  Many  of  the  con- 
ditions already  described  were  aggravated  by  the  entire  absence 
of  system  in  the  conduct  of  the  government.  There  was  not 
only  an  utter  indifference  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  bookkeeping 
in  the  administration  of  the  finances,  but  there  were  also  a  great 
number  of  local  privileges  and  customs  which  had  been  allowed 
to  remain  when  the  separate  kingdoms  and  principalities  had 
been  consolidated  and  welded  together  to  form  the  French 
nation.  Although  in  theory  the  monarch's  slightest  wish  had 
all  the  force  of  law  and  he  knew  no  restraint,  in  practice  he 
had  allowed  the  old  provincial  lines  to  be  maintained,  in  many 
cases  for  purposes  of  administration,  thus  creating  a  number 
of  conflicting  local  privileges  and  powers.     A  great  deal  of 

The  Provinces  confusion  was  the  result.  Provinces  retained  in  some  cases 
their  peculiar  systems  of  weights  and  measures  and  their  local 
usages.  This  often  gave  rise  to  a  narrow  provincial  spirit. 
The  people  of  Artois,  for  example,  requested  that  they  be 
governed  by  their  own  people,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Dauphine 
were  bold  enough  to  proclaim  that  ''they  were  in  the  king- 
dom but  not  a  part  of  it."    The  actual  administrative  units 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  97 

were  cumbersome  and  complicated,  and  there  was  altogether 
wanting  any  true  administrative  unity. 

47.  The  Administration  of  Justice.  —  Several  defects  were 
apparent  in  the  administration  of  justice.  The  judges  of  the 
courts  either  purchased  these  positions  from  the  king  or  had 
inherited  them.  This  practice  was  not  confined,  however,  The  Courts 
merely  to  the  administration  of  justice,  but  was  true  of  all 
administrative  offices,  even  extending  into  the  army.  The 
jurisdiction  of  one  court  often  overlapped  that  of  another  —  a 
further  illustration  of  the  persistence  or  survival  of  outgrown 
practices  from  feudal  times.     Those  courts  which  were  known 

as  parlements  seem  to  have  exercised  considerable  power  and 
influence  in  the  years  immediately  preceding  the  Revolution, 
as  will  appear  later.  There  were  thirteen  of  them,  and  they 
had  both  original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  within  their 
respective  districts,  which  were  unequal  in  size.  The  criminal 
laws  of  the  time  retained  all  the  ferocity  and  savagery 
which  marked  primitive  justice.  A  violation  of  the  game 
laws,  which  today  would  involve  a  penalty  of  25  francs,  was 
punished  by  life  sentence  to  the  galleys. 

The  arbitrary  character  of  the  government  is  best  illustrated  Lettres  de 
in  the  use  of  lettres  de  cachet,  or  letters  of  the  seal.  These 
were  blank  warrants  which  made  it  possible  for  the  king  or  any 
one  of  his  agents  to  arrest  and  imprison  at  his  pleasure  in  such 
state  fortresses  as  the  Bastille  any  one  of  his  subjects  who  had 
incurred  his  displeasure.  The  victim  was  often  in  entire  igno- 
rance of  the  cause  of  his  arrest,  and,  as  he  was  given  no  hearing, 
languished  in  captivity  until  such  time  as  it  pleased  those  in 
authority  to  release  him.  These  orders  were  often  granted  to 
fathers  to  restrain  their  wayward  sons  or  to  favorites  to  wreak 
vengeance  upon  their  enemies.  Dickens,  in  his  Tale  of  Two 
Cities,  illustrates  their  use  in  the  imprisonment  of  Dr.  Manette. 

48.  Condition  of  the  Common  People.  —  The  full  crushing 

weight  of  these  burdens  and  this  system  rested  upon  the  peas-  The  Peasant 
ants  who  probably  comprised  nearly  nine  tenths  of  the  popula- 


98     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

tion.  Their  misery  was  still  further  increased  by  the  nefarious 
practice  of  grain  speculation,  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made,  and  by  a  series  of  short  harvests  and  consequent 
famines  which  marked  the  close  of  the  century.  If  the  peasant's 
Httle  crop  by  any  chance  proved  a  failure,  starvation  and  death 
stared  him  in  the  face,  as  the  tax  collector  was  ever  present 
and  knew  no  mercy.  In  some  parts  of  France  his  lot  was  not 
much  above  that  of  his  cattle.  Men,  women,  and  children, 
battUng  against  such  odds  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  became 
gray  and  prematurely  old  and  found  an  early  gratve. 

With  all  this  misery  it  is  probably  true  that  the  people  of 
France  as  a  whole  were  much  more  prosperous  than  were  their 
neighbors.  Although  the  peasant  was  "the  pack  mule  of  the 
state"  (to  quote  Cardinal  Richelieu),  in  many  ways,  taking  the 
French  peasant  class  as  a  whole,  his  lot  was  far  superior  to  that 
of  the  peasant  elsewhere,  save  in  England,  where  feudalism  had 
long  since  disappeared.  The  average  of  intelligence  was  also 
higher  in  France  than  elsewhere  on  the  continent,  even  among 
the  working  classes.  Then,  too,  there  was  a  larger,  a  more 
prosperous,  and  a  more  intelligent  middle  class  to  appreciate 
and  to  give  ear  to  the  attacks  of  the  philosophers  and  economists 
upon  the  old  outgrown  system  just  described.  It  was  galling 
in  the  extreme  for  these  self-respecting  citizens  to  accord  to  the 
nobiUty  and  clergy  a  deference  and  consideration  which  they 
were  doing  nothing  to  deserve,  or  rather  everything  to  forfeit, 
and  to  realize  that  often  a  mere  accident  of  birth  had  fixed  an 
impassable  gulf  between  them  and  their  more  fortunate 
brethren. 

49.  Agitation  under  Louis  XV.  —  The  general  mismanage- 
ment and  indifference  which  marked  the  reign  of  Louis  XV 
made  these  defects  in  the  old  order  more  glaring  and  apparent 
and  served  to  increase  the  burden  which  was  already  becoming 
intolerable.  Louis  XV  seems  to  have  had  an  insight  into  the 
future,  if  the  remark  attributed  to  him  be, true,  "After  me 
the  Deluge."    Upon  his  shoulders  should  rest  much  of  the 


THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


99 


responsibility  for  the  crisis  which  his  successor  faced  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne  in  1774.  As  the  reign  of  Louis  XV  drew 
near  its  close  the  attacks  of  the  writers  became  more  bitter, 
and  as  a  result  a  few  earnest,  conscientious  administrators  were 
to  be  found  striving  to  correct  some  of  these  evils.  Perhaps 
the  book  which  exercised  the  greatest  influence  in  stirring  the 
bourgeoisie  to  action  was 
Rousseau's  Social  Contract, 
in  which  he  set  forth  his 
theory  that  what  the  times 
demanded  was  a  return  to 
the  natural  state  of  man, 
where  no  class  distinctions 
were  known  and  where 
government  allowed  the 
individual  the  freest  possi- 
ble exercise  of  his  indivi- 
dual aptitudes  and  talents. 
The  application  of  this 
idea  to  business  and  indus- 
try gave  rise  to  the  group 
of  economists  who,  while 
they  urged  the  greatest 
possible  development  of 
the  natural  resources  of  the  country,  demanded  that  the  gov- 
ernment should  cease  to  regulate  industry  and  burden  the 
worker.  These  economists  were  known  as  physiocrats,  and 
their  attitude  was  characterized  as  the  laissez-faire  or  "hands- 
off"  theory  of  the  relation  of  government  to  business  and 
industry. 

50.  Louis  XVI  and  his  Efforts  at  Reform.  —  In  the  midst  of 
this  ferment  of  ideas  Louis  XVI  ascended  the  throne.  He  was 
a  good-natured,  well-meaning  monarch.  He  lacked,  however, 
the  aggressiveness  and  initiative  which  the  times  demanded. 
He  allowed  himself  to  be  talked  first  into  one  way  of  handling  a 


Louis  XVI,  King  of  France 


Rousseau's 
Social  Contract 


The 
Physiocrats 


Character  of 
Louis  ZVI 


100    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


problem  and  then  into  another.  The  man  who  had  his  ear 
for  the  moment  was  master  of  the  situation.  Unfortunately, 
time  and  again  the  influence  of  the  queen  was  thrown  into  the 
scales  to  thwart  and  crush  many  of  the  reforms  which  were 
launched  in  the  early  years  of  the  reign.  Louis  XVI  was  not 
the  cynical,  indifferent  ruler  that  his  predecessor  had  been,  but 
he  was  a  person  of  such  mediocre  talents  and  of  such  incon- 
stancy of  purpose  that,  instead  of  being  the  man  of  the  hour, 
he  proved  to  be  a  mere  creature  of  circumstances,  buffeted  and 
tossed  about  with  every  breeze  of  fortune. 

It  was  the  sad  state  of  the  finances  which  brought  matters  to  a 
climax.  Louis  XVI  faced  national  bankruptcy.  It  augured 
well  for  the  future,  that  in  this  dilemma  he  called  to  his  aid  the 
intendant  Turgot,  who  had  been  laboring  on  a  smaller  scale  in 
the  province  of  Limousin  to  bring  order  and  system  out  of  the 
chaos  and  confusion  which  were  characteristic  of  the  time. 
Turgot  was  saturated  with  the  new  ideas,  and  immediately  upon 
taking  office  threw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  task  of  remov- 
ing abuses  and  systematizing  the  financial  administration.  He 
counselled  economy  and  sought  to  realize  it  by  cutting  down 
many  of  the  pensions  and  useless  expenditures  connected  with 
the  court.  He  was  not  content  to  remove  these,  but  set  himself 
the  more  difficult  task  of  gradually  evolving  a  better  taxing 
system.  He  abolished  the  corvee  and  relnoved  the  restrictions 
placed  by  the  zealous  merchants  and  artisans  upon  entrance 
into  the  guilds,  by  which  they  had  built  up  vexatious  mono- 
polies (sec.  1 6).  He  also  did  much  to  prevent  the  cor- 
nering of  grain  and  to  make  possible  its  free  movement  from 
province  to  province  and  its  ready  sale.  At  every  point, 
however,  he  met  with  opposition,  particularly  from  the  court 
and  the  queen.  His  enemies  easily  secured  the  king's  ear  and 
compassed  his  downfall.  With  his  retirement  from  office  went 
the  last  hope  of  extricating  France  from  her  difiiculties.  This 
was  in  May,  1776.  The  spirit  which  actuated  all  that  he  did 
stands  out  clearly  in  his  letter  to  the  king.     "My  desire,  Sire, 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


lOl 


Necker 


is  that  you  may  come  to  believe  that  I  have  looked  upon  the 
dark  side  and  have  shown  you  dangers  which  do  not  exist.  I 
hope  that  time  will  not  justify  me." 

51.  Necker  and  the  Summoning  of  the  States  General.— 
After  this  matters  went  from  bad  to  worse.  Most  of  Turgot's 
work  was  undone.  One  of  his  opponents,  the  banker  Necker, 
was  soon  called  in  to  take  his 
place  and  to  avert  if  possible 
the  threatened  bankruptcy. 
Skilled  and  successful  though 
he  had  been  in  accumulating  a 
fortune  for  himself,  Necker 
had  no  plan  to  propose  which 
could  effect  a  permanent  re- 
form. He  was  successful  in 
bolstering  up  and  maintaining 
French  credit  while  in  office, 
and  saw  the  need  of  keeping  the  expenditures  in  harmony 
with  the  receipts.  Seeing  his  influence  gradually  slipping  away, 
he  turned  to  the  people  for  support,  publishing  for  their  benefit 
a  statement  of  the  exact  financial  condition  of  the  country. 
This  was  in  the  form  of  a  balance  sheet  which  showed  clearly 
the  tremendous  gulf  which  separated  receipts  and  expenditures. 
Its  publication  gave  the  court  a  great  shock  and  the  king  imme- 
diately demanded  his  resignation.  It  also  created  a  great  stir 
throughout  the  country,  as  the  suspicions  of  the  masses  were 
now  confirmed  that  "the  court  indeed  was  the  sepulchre  of  the 
nation." 

Calonne,  who  was  better  fitted  to  shine  at  court  functions 
than  to  solve  a  problem  of  such  magnitude,  was  finally  called 
to  the  king's  assistance.  Instead  of  profiting  by  the  revela- 
tions of  his  predecessor  as  to  the  true  state  of  affairs,  he 
threw  to  the  winds  all  regard  for  economy  and  plunged  the 
country  still  deeper  into  the  abyss  of  debt.  He  reasoned 
that  the  financial  soundness  of  a  nation  was  in  direct  ratio 


Necker's  Bal- 
ance Sheet 


Calonne 


102     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  its  borrowing  power  and  dependent  thereon  and  that  if 
he  could  make  a  sufficient  display  of  securing  funds,  this  would 
react  upon  the  country  to  maintain  its  credit  and  preserve  its 
^  integrity.     He  borrowed  right  and  left  and  issued  vast  amounts 

of  paper  currency.  In  spite,  however,  of  his  valiant  show  he 
soon  reached  the  end  of  his  resources  and  of  those  of  the 
country  and  was  forced  to  fall  back  upon  some  of  the  ideas 
of  Turgot.  To  sanction  these  proposals  he  suggested  to  the 
Assembly  of  king  the  calUng  of  an  Assembly  of  the  Notables.  The  nota- 
bles were  representatives  of  the  nobility  who  had  been  sum- 
moned from  time  to  time  to  consult  with  the  king  on  measures 
of  importance  which  affected  their  order.  Calonne  thought 
that  if  he  placed  before  this  body  the  dire  needs  of  the  country 
he  could  persuade  them  to  surrender  some  of  their  cherished 
privileges  and  to  agree  to  forms  of  taxation  which  would  remedy 
matters.  He  soon  saw  his  delusion.  This  body  not  only  op- 
posed his  measures  but  brought  about  his  downfall. 

This  step  of  Calonne's,  hov/ever,  brought  with  it  consequences 
Agitation  for      of  greater  significance.     For  some  time  now  public  opinion  had 
stat^'ef  Gelefa^i  ^^^^  making  itself  felt  even  among  French  officialdom.     Its 
spokesmen  were  to  be  found  in  the  various  parlements  of  the 
country.     These  began  to  take  a  keen  interest  in  developments 
at  the  capital  and  to  question  the  power  of  a  single  man  or  group 
of  men  to  deal  with  the  situation.     A  meeting  of  the  States 
General,  they  argued,  was  needed  to  compass  any  permanent 
measure  of  reform.     This  demand  was  now  voiced  by  the  very 
body  called  to  face  the  crisis,  the  Assembly  of  the  Notables. 
Disgusted  with  their  obstinacy  and  failure  to  sanction  the  decrees 
proposed,  the  king  dismissed  them  and  sought  to  put  certain 
portions  of  Calonne's  schemes  into  operation  on  his  own  ini- 
tiative and  that  of  his-  new  minister.     When,  however,  he  tried 
The  King  and  to  get  the  decrees  registered  by  the  Parlement  of  Paris,  in  order 
of*Paris*°^^^     to  give  them  authority  with  the  people,  this  body  refused  to  reg- 
ister them  and  insisted  that  the  States  General  was  the  only 
body  competent  to  enact  such  measures.    Although  the  king 


Necker 


THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION  1 03 

vented  his  disappointment  on  the  judges  and,  by  the  one  method 
left  open  to  him  in  such  cases,  proclaimed  the  validity  of  his 
edicts,  he  yielded  to  the  demand  now  so  insistent  and  coming 
from  so  many  quarters.  He  recalled  Necker  and  called  for  a  Recall  of 
meeting  of  the  States  General.  This  decision  was  reached  in  the 
summer  of  1788.  The  meeting  was  called  for  May,  1789.  It 
was  a  most  momentous  step.  The  absolutist  government  of 
France  had  capitulated.  It  had  confessed  its  weakness  and 
impotency  and  was  now  stepping  aside  to  allow  the  people  to 
share  in  the  management  of  its  affairs. 

Great  interest  was  manifested  throughout  France  in  the 
meeting  of  this  body.  It  had  not  met  since  16 14  and  little  was 
known  of  its  organization,  its  powers,  or  its  functions.  A 
study  was  made  of  these  under  the  direction  of  the  king  and  his 
minister  in  order  that  certain  perplexing  questions  which  were 
immediately  forthcoming  might  be  settled.  There  was  the 
question  of  the  election  of  delegates.  How  were  they  to  be 
chosen  and  by  whom?  Each  order  was  entitled  to  representa- 
tion, but  the  king  and  his.minister  were  confronted  by  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  many  delegates  were  to  be  allowed  to  the  third 
estate,  or  bourgeoisie.  The  first  of  these  questions,  as  to  who 
should  participate  in  the  choice  of  delegates,  was  settled  in  the 
interest  of  the  bourgeoisie  rather  than  that  of  the  lower  classes. 
A  property  qualification  was  required  for  delegates  to  the  third 
estate,  and  their  choice  was  restricted  entirely  to  property  owners. 
In  apportioning  representatives  among  the  three  orders,  it  was 
decided  that  the  third  estate  should  be  entitled  to  as  many 
delegates  as  the  other  two  orders  together.  So  anxious  were 
the  people  of  the  various  provinces  to  get  their  grievances  before 
this  body  that  everywhere  elaborate  instructions  were  drawn 
up  for  their  representatives  containing  detailed  statements  of 
conditions  which  demanded  immediate  attention.  These  were 
known  as  cahiers  and  furnish  us  with  much  of  our  information 
about  the  ancien  regime. 

This  assembly,  then,  not  only  marked  the  capitulation  of 


04     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


The  Beginning 
of  a  Revolution 


absolutism  in  France  but  voiced  essentially,  so  far  as  the  masses 
were  concerned,  the  demands  of  the  middle  classes  alone.  Their 
representatives  were  coming  together,  not,  as  the  king  perhaps 
imagined,  merely  to  patch  up  a  financial  crisis  which  had  got 
beyond  his  control,  but  to  propose  far-reaching  schemes  of  re- 
form which  should  transform  France  and  rebuild  it  on  new 
lines.  The  meeting  of  the  States  General,  therefore,  has 
been  looked  upon  as  marking  the  true  beginning  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

52.  Formation  of  the  National  Constituent  Assembly.  —  Be- 
fore the  assembly  could  set  itself  to  the  task  of  overthrowing  the 
old  order  or  of  correcting  its  abuses,  much  work  of  a  preliminary 
character  had  to  be  accomplished.  A  very  serious  question  arose 
at  the  outset  as  to  voting.  It  had  been  the  custom  in  the  old 
days  to  vote  by  order,  that  is,  to  give  each  estate  one  vote  in  the 
final  decision  of  all  questions  brought  before  them.  In  this  way 
the  clergy  and  nobles  acting  in  common,  as  was  usually  the 
case,  could  outvote  the  bourgeoisie,  however  numerous  they 
might  be.  This  ancient  practice  did  npt  satisfy  the  third  estate 
on  this  occasion.  They  demanded  that  the  three  estates  should 
act  as  one  body,  each  delegate  casting  a  vote,  and  refused  to 
organize  for  the  business  in  hand  until  this  question  was  settled. 
A  deadlock  ensued.  The  third  estate  finally  proclaimed  them- 
selves the  assembly  of  the  French  nation,  invited  the  other 
orders  to  join  them,  and  on  June  17th  formally  adopted  the 
name  National  Assembly.  The  deadlock  had  already  lasted 
more  than  a  month  and  the  struggle  was  at  its  height.  Thus 
far  the  king  had  been  unwilling  to  look  the  situation  squarely 
in  the  face  and  had  hesitated  as  to  what  steps  he  ought 
to  take.  His  disapproval  of  the  action  of  the  third  estate 
was  shared  by  the  court,  who  finally  persuaded  him  to  call 
a  royal  session  and  throw  the  weight  of  his  authority  in  favor 
of  the  old  custom.  On  the  morning  of  the  20th  of  June, 
when  the  third  estate  gathered  for  a  session  at  their  usual 
meeting  place,  they  found  the  hall  closed  and  the  carpenters  at 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


105 


work  preparing  for  a  royal  sitting.     This  was  a  signal  for  a  The  Tennis 
more  decided  step.    Adjourning  to  a  tennis  court  near  by,  they  ^°^  ^'^ 
proceeded  to  take  a  solemn  oath  that  they  would  stand  together 
and  not  adjourn  until  they  had  given  France  a  constitution. 
Their  action  recalls  that  of  the  Long  Parliament  over  a  hundred 


The  Tennis  Court  Oath 

"Strange  sight  is  this  in  the  Rue  St.  Francois,  Vieux  Versailles!  .  .  .  The 
Oath  is  pronounced  aloud  of  President  Bailly.  Six  hundred  right-hands 
rise  with  President  Bailly's,  to  take  God  above  to  witness  that  they  will 
not  separate  for  man  below,  but  will  meet  in  all  places,  under  all  circum- 
stances, wheresoever  two  or  three  can  get  together,  till  they  have  made  the 
Constitution."  —  Carlyle. 

years  before,  one  of  whose  first  steps  was  to  pass  a  resolution 
that  they  would  not  be  adjourned  or  dissolved  without  their 
own  consent.  This  step  meant  much  more  in  the  case  of  the 
National  Assembly  than  in  that  of  the  Long  Parliament.  The 
delegates  of  the  bourgeoisie  had  by  their  action  adopted  a  definite 


I06    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


programme.  They  had  resolved  themselves  into  a  Consti- 
tutional Convention  and  for  this  reason  have  been  called  by 
historians  the  National-Constituent  Assembly.  They  had  not 
only  struck  a  blow  at  the  king's  power,  but  had  committed 

themselves  definitely  to  the  task  of 
remodelling  France,  thereby  inaug- 
urating a  new  era  in  its  develop- 
ment. 

Three  days  later  the  States  Gen- 
eral met  in  royal  session.  After 
the  king  had  read  a  carefully  pre- 
pared speech  in  which  he  chided  the 
third  estate  for  their  stubbornness, 
he  ordered  the  deputies  to  disperse 
and  meet  by  orders  as  had  been  the 
custom.  Undismayed  by  these 
words,  the  members  of  the  third 
estate  and  several  of  the  clergy 
kept  their  seats,  and  amid  an  omi- 
nous silence  the  Marquis  de  Mira- 
beau  arose  and  in  thundering  tones 
proclaimed  the  rights  of  the  Assem- 
bly, concluding  with  the  significant 
words,  "We  are  here  by  the  will  of 
the  people,  and  we  will  only  quit  at 
the  point  of  the  bayonet."  The 
king  was  not  prepared  to  press 
his  demand,  and  as  the  third 
estate  persisted  in  its  attitude,  he 
weakly  ordered  the  other  two  es- 
tates to  join  them.  There  had 
already  been  defections  from  their 
ranks,  especially  among  the  clergy,  as  the  cures  had  all  along 
sympathized  heart  and  soul  with  the  attitude  of  the  third 
estate. 


MlRABEAU 

Mirabeau  was  forty  years  old 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution.  He  had  already 
served  on  a  secret  mission  to 
Prussia  and  had  published  a 
four-volume  work  on  the  Prus- 
sian monarchy  under  Frederick 
the  Great.  His  wisdom  and 
foresight  made  him  a  leader  in 
the  National  Assembly,  and  he 
served  as  its  president  for  two 
weeks  in  1791.  Weakened  by 
dissipation  he  died  early  that 
year,  carrying  to  his  dying  day 
the  brilliance  which  had  distin- 
guished him,  as  shown  by  his  last 
utterances, "  I  carry  with  me  the 
ruin  of  the  monarchy.  After  my 
death  factions  will  dispute  about 
the  fragments." 


THE, FRENCH   REVOLUTION  107 

53.  Interference  of  Paris :  Fall  of  the  Bastille.  —  Stirred  to 
action  by  the  hostile  court,  Louis  XVI  now  began  to  gather 
troops,  probably  with  the  idea  of  overawing  the  Assembly  or  of 
dispersing  it,  and  the  situation  began  to  be  very  tense.  The  Attitude  of 
influence  of  the  city  of  Paris  was  now  thrown  into  the  scale.  ^*^* 
The  population  had  long  been  dependent  for  a  living  upon  their 
nearness  to  the  court  at  Versailles,  but  they  had  little  sympathy 
with  its  attitude  of  superiority  and  indifference  to  the  country 
at  large.  A  severe  winter  and"  a  scarcity  of  food  had  given  rise  to 
disorder  and  discontent  here  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
Every  one  had  been  following  closely  the  events  at  Versailles 
and  had  been  looking  to  the  States  General  to  improve  condi- 
tions. Two  months  had  now  passed  without  seeing  any  results 
accomplished,  and  everything  pointed  to  the  speedy  termination 
of  the  proceedings  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 

The  disappointment  everywhere  apparent  began  to  manifest 
itself  in  acts  of  disorder.     The  regiments  of  soldiers  stationed 
in  the  city  sympathized  with  the  people,  and  when  Louis  XVI 
dismissed  Necker,  the  minister  on  whom  they  had  pinned  all  Dismissal 
their  hopes  (July  nth),  the  storm  burst.      On  the  12th  and   °^  ^®*'^®' 
13th  armed  men  of  the  lower  classes  appeared  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  city,  and  there  was  a  general  call  to  arms  and 
a  ransacking  of  shops,  storehouses,  and  arsenals  in  the  search 
for  weapons.     The  bourgeois  element  in  the  city,  who  felt 
that  their  own  future  hinged  upon  the  fate  of  their  represen- 
tatives at  Versailles,  now  formed   themselves  into  companies  The  Nations 
for  the  protection  of  their  persons  and  property  against  the   ^"^** 
dual  danger  of  the  king  and  the  court  on  the  one  hand  and 
of  the  disorderly  mob  element  on  the  other.     The  government 
of  Paris  was  overthrown  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  those 
men  who  had  been  ^elected  to  choose  the  city  representatives 
to  the  third  estate.     Bailly,  one  of  the  deputies,  was  elected 
mayor  and  La  Fayette  was  made  commander  of  the  new  miH-  La  Fayette 
tary  force,  now  known  as  the  National  Guard  (July  17).    Mean- 
while, on   the   14th,  the  Parisian  populace,   assisted  by   the 


Fall  of  the 
Bastille 


1 08     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

soldiers,  stormed  and  captured  the  royal  fortress  command- 
ing the  city  and  known  as  the  Bastille,  released  the  prisoners 
confined  there,  and  razed  the  structure  to  the  ground.  By  this 
act  public  opinion,  which  had  already  been  making  itself  heard, 


Demolition  of  the  Bastille 


Disorder  In 
the  Provinces 


expressed  itself  in  no  uncertain  language.  The  Bastille  was 
everywhere  looked  upon  as  the  symbol  of  absolutism  and  op- 
pression, and  its  fall  assured  the  representatives  of  the  third 
estate  that  they  were  not  standing  alone  in  their  opposition 
to  king  and  court. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille  was  everywhere  greeted 
with  the  wildest  enthusiasm.  The  people  in  the  provinces 
followed  the  example  of  Paris  and  attacked  the  local  symbols  of 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


09 


no    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

oppression  —  in  some  cases  the  chateaux  of  the  lords,  in  others, 
the  custom-houses  —  and  spread  terror  and  consternation 
throughout  the  country.  National  Guards  were  organized  to 
preserve  order..  Wherever  the  city  governments  showed  them- 
selves inefficient  or  unsympathetic  with  the  movement,  they 
were  reorganized  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  bourgeoisie. 
The  nobles  now  began  to  leave  the  country,  fearing  that  the 
sudden  turn  of  affairs  might  precipitate  greater  disorders. 
When  the  news  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille  was  communicated  to 
the  king,  he  exclaimed,  "Why,  this  is  a  revolt!"-  "No,  your 
Majesty,"  was  the  reply,  "it  is  revolution."  The  city  of  Paris 
had  indeed  saved  the  situation*  and  made  possible  the  revolu- 
tion by  saving  the  Assembly  from  possible  dissolution  and 
enabling  it  to  undertake  with  boldness  the  work  to  which  it 
had  already  committed  itself. 

54.  The  End  of  the  Old  Order.  —  The  immediate  effect  of 
these  events  upon  the  National  Assembly  was  the  abolition  of 
The  Abolition  privilege.  The  news  of  the  various  uprisings  in  the  provinces 
rv  ege  convinced  some  of  the  members  that  the  time  had  arrived  for 
some  action  on  their  part  which  would  relieve  the  situation.  On 
the  night  of  the  4th  of  August  the  Viscount  de  Noailles  declared 
that,  as  the  rights  of  the  nobles,  "odious  survivals  of  feudalism," 
were  primarily  responsible  for  the  crisis,  there  was  but  one 
remedy  which  would  apply  to  the  situation  and  that  was  their 
entire  abolition.  His  proposal  met  with  an  immediate  response. 
In  a  delirium  of  enthusiasm,  in  a  night  session  lasting  far  into 
the  early  morning  hours,  the  deputies  voted  the  suppression  of 
all  feudal  privileges,  feudal  justice,  the  right  to  hunt,  the  feudal 
dues,  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the  guilds;  in  short  they 
swept  away  every  barrier  which  made  for  social  inequality. 
They  had  in  reality  wrought  in  six  hours  a  great  social  revo- 
lution. The  very  haste  with  which  they  accomplished  this  re- 
sult gave  rise  to  much  distress  and  disorder.  The  severing  in 
one  night  of  ties  which  had  bound  the  whole  social  structure 
together  for  generations  was  an  act  so  violent  in  its  disrupt- 


THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


III 


ing  power  that  it  encouraged  further  outbursts  of  violence  and 
acts  of  reprisal. 

55.  Removal  of  the  Government  to  Paris.  —  The  king's 
actions,  or  failure  to  act,  were  still  grounds  for  suspicion  and  gave 
rise  to  the  greatest  uncertainty.  October  had  come,  and  al- 
though- the  decrees  just  de- 
scribed had  received  the 
royal  sanction,  they  had  not 
been  promulgated,  nor  had 
any  relief  measures  been  en- 
acted to  meet  the  financial 
crisis.  Additional  troops 
had  arrived  at  Versailles, 
and  the  rumor  had  gone 
forth  that  at  a  banquet  ten- 
dered to  some  of  their 
number,  speeches  had  been 
delivered  which  were  hostile 
to  the  Assembly.  It  was 
also  asserted  that  the  new 
revolutionary  tricolor  had 
been  trampled  .under  foot 
and  the  white  cockade  of 
the  Bourbons  had  been»  sub- 
stituted. These  conditions,  combined  with  a  continued  scarcity 
of  bread,  aroused  the  Paris  mob  anew  to  an  expression  of  its 
power.  On  the  5th  of  October  a  crowd  of  from  seven  to  eight  March  of 
thousand  women,  armed  with  a  variety  of  weapons  and  drag- 
ging cannon,  set  out  on  the  road  to  Versailles,  demanding  bread. 
They  looked  to  the  government  —  as  has  been  so  often  the  case 
before  and  since  —  to  satisfy  their  physical  needs,  insisting  that 
the  king  and  queen  were  "the  baker  and  the  baker's  wife"  and 
their  son,  "  the  little  cook  boy."  La  Fayette  was  advised  of  the 
movement  and  fearing  for  the  safety  of  the  royal  family,  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  National  Guard  and  followed  them. 


The  Bed  or  Marie  Antoinette 

The  gorgeousness  of  the  furnishings 
of  Versailles  is  illustrated  by  this  piC'- 
ture  of  the  bed  of  Marie  Antoinette. 


the  Women 
to  Versailles 


112     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  mob  invaded  the  palace  and  encamped  there  over  night,  and 
in  the  morning  some  of  their  number  burst  into  the  queen's 
apartments,  killing  members  of  her  bodyguard.  The  queen  had 
been  warned  in  t'me,  however,  and  escaped  their  wrath.    La 


Removal  of  the  King  and  Queen  to  Paris 


Fayette,  by  persuading  the  king  to  show  himself  on  a  balcony, 
finally  succeeded  in  calming  their  excited  passions,  and  the  king 
consented  to  remove  to  Paris,  where  the  starving  city  could  have 
the  benefit  of  "baker  and  Httle  cook  boy."  Still  surrounded  by 
the  mob,  the  royal  family  slowly  made  their  way  by  coach  to 
Paris,  and  about  two  weeks  later,  on  the  19th  of  October,  the 
Assembly  followed  them.  The  Paris  mob  had  won  a  great  vic- 
tory in  that  they  now  had  both  king  and  Assembly  at  their 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


13 


merc)^  From  the  very  outset  Paris  had  been  the  centre  of  radi- 
cal journaUstic  activity,  and  its  citizens  had '  tried  by  various 
means  to  bring  influence  to  bear  upon  the  Assembly,  packing 
the  galleries  and  shouting  their  approval  or  disapproval  of  the 
proposals  under  discussion.  The  distance,  however,  which 
separated  the  capital  from  the  city  had  made  it  somewhat  diffi- 
cult for  them  to  sway  the  Assembly  by  these  means.  From 
this  time  forward  it  was  comparatively  easy  to  make  the  dep- 
uties feel  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  as  represented  by  the 
people  of  Paris.  Had  this  public  opinion  been  moulded  by  the 
moderate  or  conservative  elements,  some  of  its  results  might  not 
have  been  so  disastrous,  but  the  radical  leaders  were  rapidly 
getting  the  upper  hand  and  constituting  themselves  on. every 
occasion  the  spokesmen  of  the  nation.  "Let  the  Assembly  look 
out  for  itself,"  said  one  of  them,  "we  will  set  fire  to  Paris  and 
deluge  it  in  blood  rather  than  be  deprived  of  our  rights." 

The  abolition  of  privilege  completed,  the  Assembly  began  to 
wrestle  with  the  other  problems  before  them.  To  reUeve  the 
financial  pressure,  the  church  lands  were  confiscated  and  large 
quantities  of  paper  money,  or  assignats,  were  issued  upon  these  issue  of 
as  security.  The  Assembly  was  not  at  all  careful  to  place  ^^**^*® 
about  the  issue  the  safeguards  demanded  in  such  cases,  and  it 
was  not  long  before  the  assignats  began  to  fall  in  value.  Such 
an  arrangement,  therefore,  was  far  from  permanent.  The  finan- 
cial problem  still  called  loudly  for  a  satisfactory  solution. 

56.  The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  and  the  Consti- 
tution of  1 79 1.  —  The  task  of  drawing  up  a  constitution  for  the 
country  was  one  which  required  much  thought  and  labor.  The 
most  notable  portion  of  the  document,  when  completed,  was  the 
preamble,  which  was  known  as  the  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of 
Man.  Under  the  influence  of  our  American  Revolution  the  As-  influence  of 
sembly  set  forth  for  the  first  time  in  clear-cut  fashion  the  rights  Revolution^ 
which  are  generally  accepted  today  as  the  basis  of  every  free 
government.  These  principles  have  been  called  the  "Evangel 
of  Modern  Times"  and  maintain  as  the  essential  rights  of  man. 


114    ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


"  Active  "  and 
"  Passive  " 
Citizens 


Legislative 
Assembly 


liberty,  private  property,  personal  security,  and  resistance  to  op- 
pression.   The  document  calls  to  mind  many  of  the  provisions 
in  the  American  Bill  of  Rights 
our  Constitution. 


the  first  ten  amendments  to 


France  in  1789,  Showing  the  Provinces 

The  constitution  itself  failed  to  recognize  one  of  the  most 
important  of  these  rights,  that  of  absolute  equality  between 
citizens,  as  the  right  to  share  in  the  government  rested  upon  a 
property  qualification,  and  citizens  were  classified  either  as 
** active"  or  "passive,"  according  to  the  power  which  was  con- 
ferred upon  them  to  share  in  the  government.  Even  the  active 
citizens  did  not  participate  directly  in  the  elections  but  chose 
electors  to  act  for  them.  These  in  turn  must  satisfy  still  higher 
qualifications  as  to  fortune.  A  legislative  assembly  was  created 
into  whose  hands  was  intrusted  the  main  business  of  governing 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


115 


the  country.    The  king  was  shorn  of  most  of  his  power,  enjoying 
only  a  suspensive  veto  over  the  laws  passed  by  the  legislature. 
He  was  to  be  known  as  King  of  the  French  instead  of  King  of  Ministry 
France  and  was  to  be  assisted  in  governing  by  a  group  of  min- 


France  in  1 791,  Showing  the  Departments 

isters.  These,  like  the  English  cabinet,  could  not  be  chosen 
from  the  members  of  the  Assembly.  The  judges  were  to  be 
elected  instead  of  receiving  their  offices  by  purchase  or  through 
birth  as  in  the  old  days.  For  purposes  of  local  administration 
France  was  systematically  divided  into  departments,  these  again  Local 
into  districts,  the  districts  into  cantons,  and  the  cantons  into 
communes.  Each  of  these  divisions  elected  its  officials  and  each 
was  more  or  less  of  a  law  unto  itself,  i.e.,  a  separate  and  distinct 
organization.  In  this  way  was  created  a  decentrahzed  system 
of  administration  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  highly  centraHzed 


Government 


Il6     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

bureaucratic  monarchy.      The  entire   taxing  system   was  re- 
modelled and  a  more  equitable  system  established. 

The  constitution  was  lamentably  weak.  The  National 
Assembly  had  gone  to  extremes  in  its  separation  of  the  executive 
and   law-making   departments   of   the   government   and   had 


The  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy 

The  clergy  are  represented  as  afl&xing  their  signatures  to  the  Civil  Con- 
stitution of  the  Clergy. 


Weaknesses 
of  the 
Constitution 


reduced  royalty  to  a  mere  figure-head.  Its  failure  to  recognize 
the  principle  of  manhood  suffrage  excited  the  wrath  of  the  lower 
classes  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  overthrow  at  the  hands  of 
the  mob  element  of  this  essentially  bourgeois  government. 

57.  The  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  and  the  Flight  of 
the  King.  — In  July,  1796,  the  National  Assembly  drew  up  a 
document,  known  as  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  which 
thoroughly  reorganized  the  church.  The  same  principles  were 
applied  to  the  church  as  to  the  civil  government,  reducing  the 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  1 17 

number  of  officials  and  providing  for  their  election  at  the  hands  Nature  of 
of  qualified  electors.     These  arrangements,  in  providing  for  a  coMOt^tion 
French  church  almost  independent  of  Rome,  dealt  a  severe 
blow  at  the  Pope. 

Louis  XVI  was  too  good  a  Catholic  not  to  be  shocked  at  these 
changes.  He  gave  his  consent  to  the  new  plan,  but  unwillingly. 
The  situation  was  daily  becoming  more  and  more  intolerable, 
and  he  began  to  make  preparations  to  leave  the  country  and 
bring  force  to  bear  from  the  outside  upon  his  rebellious  subjects. 
He  looked  to  his  brother-in-law,  the  Emperor  Leopold  of  Opposition 
Austria,  to  extricate  him  from  his  dilemma,  and  the  latter  had  al-  °  *  * 
ready  begun  to  mobilize  troops  near  the  French  frontier.  Mira- 
beau  was  not  entirely  pleased  with  the  trend  of  affairs.  He 
counted  much  upon  the  establishment  of  a  governmental  system 
similar  to  that  in  England,  but  the  Assembly  had  rejected  one  of 
his  most  cherished  projects,  that  of  a  cabinet  to  cooperate  with 
the  king.  He  had  counselled  the  king  to  leave  Paris,  take  refuge 
in  one  of  the  provinces,  and  there  rouse  the  people  against  the 
capital,  which  was  rapidly  dominating  the  work  of  the  Assembly. 
The  king,  however,  rejected  this  advice.  Instead  he  made 
preparations  to  cross  the  frontier  and  bring  foreign  troops  into 
France  to  restore  his  vanished  power.  This  was  in  June,  1791. 
Mirabeau  had  died  the  preceding  April  and  the  Assembly  was 
now  preparing  to  put  its  work  into  final  shape.  Such  an 
attempt  to  free  himself  from  the  difficulties  which  he  faced 
was  a  clear  indication  of  the  king's  real  attitude  toward  the 
work  which  had  been  accomphshed.  His  success  would  prob- 
ably nullify  all  the  work  of  the  Assembly;  his  failure  could  only 
spell  ruin  for  the  House  of  Bourbon.  In  disguise,  the  royal  Flight  to 
family  made  its  way  as  far  as  the  little  town  of  Varennes,  only  ^"^"^^^ 
a  few  miles  from  the  frontier,  but  the  king  had  been  recog- 
nized en  route  as  he  stopped  for  a  change  of  horses  and  could 
proceed  no  further.  Escorted  by  a  committee  of  the  As- 
sembly the  royal  family  was  brought  back  to  Paris.  From  this 
time   forth   they  were  virtually  prisoners;     by   this   act    the 


Completed 


Ii8    ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

monarch  had  started  the  revolution  upon  a  new  series  of  de- 
velopments which  were  to  alter  its  entire  character.  On  Sep- 
tember 3d  the  king  signed  the  final  revision  of  the  Constitution. 
When  the  Assembly  adjourned  on  September  30,  1 791,  it  could 
look  back  upon  a  long  list  of  accomplishments.  It  had  virtually 
brought  to  an  end  the  ancien  regime,  had  dealt  the  absolute 
monarchy  its  death  blow,  and  had  organized  a  comparatively 
The  Revolution  simple  administrative  machine  to  replace  the  cumbersome 
system  which  had  given  rise  to  so  much  dissatisfaction  and 
abuse  of  power.     Apparently,  the  revolution  was  complete. 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND   QUESTIONS   FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  Compare  the  social,  political,  and  religious  conditions  in  England  and 
France  at  tHe  opening  of  the  French  Revolution.  2,  Compare  the  attitude 
of  the  French  people  toward  lettres-de-cachet  with  the  feeling  in  America 
against  Writs  of  Assistance.  3.  Summarize  the  suggestions  for  reforms 
made  in  the  cahiers.  4.  Explain  the  process  by  which  the  Estates  General 
became  the  National  Assembly.  5.  Give  a  characterization  of  Louis  XVI; 
Marie  Antoinette;  Mirabeau;  La  Fayette;  Necker.  6.  Why  did  the  de- 
struction of  the  Bastille  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  era?  7.  Compare  the 
Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  with  the  English  Bill  of  Rights.  8.  Com- 
pare the  constitution  of  the  reformed  French  monarchy  with  that  of  England 
at  the  same  time.  9.  Sum  up  the  changes  effected  by  the  Civil  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Clergy.     10.   Distinguish  between  the  assignats  and  the  mandats. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  The  Ancien  Regime  in  France.    Lowell,  The  Eve  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

1.  The  king  and  the  administration,  pp.  4-10. 

2.  Louis  XVI  and  his  court,  pp.  11-24. 

3.  The  clergy,  pp.  25-39. 

4.  The  nobility,  pp.  70-82. 

5.  The  law  courts,  pp.  103-118. 

6.  Taxation,  pp.  207-29. 

7.  Finance,  pp.  230-42. 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp. 

203-17.  Seignobos,  Contemporary  Civilization,  pp.  92-106. 
MaUet,  The  French  Revolution,  pp.  5-27.  Gardiner,  The 
French  Revolution,  pp.  1-17.  Rose,  The  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  Era,  pp.  1-29.  Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe, 
pp.    i-io.     Johnston,    The  French    Revolution,  pp.    1-24. 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION  119 

Morris,  The  French  Revolution,  pp.  1-18.     Plunket,   The 
Fall  of  the  Old  Order,  pp.  46-64.     Mathews,  French  Revo- 
lution, pp.  1-72.     Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  449-56. 
II.   Characters  of  the  French  Revolution.    First  Part. 

1.  Voltaire.     Lowell,  pp.  51-69.    Johijston,  pp.  16-18,  20-1.    Sei- 

gnobos,  pp.  68-70.    Mallet,  pp.  32-3.    Plunket,  pp.  65-8. 

2.  Montesquieu.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  175-6.     Mallet, 

pp.  3T^-2. 

3.  Rousseau.    Lowell,  pp.   274-321.     Mallet,  pp.  36-41.    Belloc, 

pp.  31-8.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  176-7.     Plunket, 
pp.  68-71. 

4.  The  encyclopaedists.     Lowell,  pp.  243-60.     Seignobos,  pp.  72- 

73.    Mallet,  pp.  33-6. 

5.  Louis  XVI.     Belloc,  The  French  Revolution,  pp.  41-48.    Johns- 

ton, pp.  35-6. 

6.  Marie  Antoinette.     Belloc,  pp.  48-56.     Johnston,  pp.  36-7. 

7.  Mirabeau.    Belloc,  pp.  56-63.     Johnston,  pp.  50,  55,  58-59,  89, 

95,  98-100,  1 14-5.     Morris,  pp.  48-9.     Stephens,  pp.  73-6, 
98-9.    Mallet,  pp.  118-28. 

8.  La  Fayette.     Belloc,  pp.  64-7.    Johnston,  pp.  71-4.      Mallet, 

pp.  1 16-8. 

9.  Turgot.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  218-22.  Rose,  pp.  31-33. 

10.  Necker.     Johnston,  pp.  37-8,  46-59.     Mallet,  pp.  46-47,  114-5. 

11.  Calonne.    Johnston,  pp.  37-43.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I, 

pp.  222-5. 

III.  The  States  General. 

Johnston,  pp.  35-55.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  224-33.  Sei- 
gnobos, pp.  1 10-13.  Rose,  pp.  30-8.  Belloc,  pp.  89-102.  Mathews, 
pp.  106-20. 

IV.  Beginnings  of  Violence. 

Johnston,  pp.  61-9,  83-8.     Belloc,  pp.  98-106.     Rose,  pp.  40-2, 
47-8.     Seignobos,  pp.  115-7.     Mathews,  pp.   125-37.     Hayes, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  474-8. 
V.  The  National  Assembly  and  its  Reforms. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  237-47.  Johnston,  pp.  89-104. 
Belloc,  pp.  107-12.  Mallet,  pp.  71-97.  Seignobos,  pp.  117- 
126.  Jeffery,  pp.  9-14.  Mathews,  pp.  138-65.  Hayes,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  479-86. 

Source  Studies 

1.  The  ancien  regime.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  Vol.  I,  pp.  225-6. 

2.  Protests  of  a  French  court  against  lettres-de-cachet.    Ibid.,  pp.  227-9. 

3.  Condition  of  the  French  people  at  the  opening  of  the  revolution.     Ihid.^ 

pp.  229-34.     Library  of  Original  Sources,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  374-90. 

4.  Turgot  on  accepting  office.     Ibid.,  pp.  390-4. 

5.  Typical  cahiers.     Ibid.,  pp.    398-411.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I, 

pp.  248-51. 


120    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

6.  Opening  of  the  Estates  General.    Ibid.,  pp.  251-2. 

7.  The  tennis-court  oath.    Fling,  Source  Problems  on  the  French  Revo- 

lution, pp.  3-63. 

8.  The  meeting  of  the  National  Assembly.    Ihid.,  pp.  67-159.    Robinson 

and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  252-5. 

9.  What  is  the  third  estate?  (Sieyes)  Original  Sources,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  294-8. 

10.  The  insurrection  of  October,  1789.     Fling,  pp.  163-248. 

11.  Mirabeau's  advice  to  the  king.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  262-7. 

Original  Sources,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  417-28. 

12.  The  decree  abolishing  the  Feudal  System.     /6f  J.,  pp.  41 1-4.     Robinson 

and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  256-9. 

13.  Declaration  of  the  rights  of  man.    Ihid.,  pp.  260-2.    Original  Sources, 

Vol.  VII,  pp.  415-7- 

14.  Civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.   Robinson,  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  273-7. 

15.  The  assembly  reviews  its  work.    /6?J.,  pp.  268-73. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  On  an  outline  map  of  France  show  the  division  into  provinces  in  1789; 
the  region  of  the  great  salt  tax;  the  regions  of  the  Roman  and  of  the  Feudal 
Law.  2.  Draw  a  plan  of  the  city  of  Paris  to  illustrate  the  events  of  the  Revo- 
lution mentioned  in  the  chapter.  3.  Draw  a  map  to  illustrate  the  changes 
made  by  the  National  Assembly.  4.  On  an  outline  map  of  Europe  show 
the  territorial  arrangements  at  the  opening  of  the  French  Revolution. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Ecclesiastical  map  of  France,  1789- 
1802,  p.  148.  France  in  1791,  pL  148.  Plan  of  Versailles,  1789,  p.  149. 
Plan  of  Paris,  1789,  p.  149.  Central  Europe  about  1786,  p.  134.  Europe 
about  1740,  p.  130. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  France  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  Revolution,  p.  30.  France  on  the  eve  of  the  French  Revolution, 
p.  20.  Europe  on  the  eve  of  the  French  Revolution,  p.  24.  France  during 
the  Revolution,  p.  25. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  Paris  at  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution,  p.  13. 

Gardiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  France  in  provinces, 
1769-89,  p.  49.     Central  Europe,  1789,  p.  51. 

Robertson-Bartholomew,  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  Oxford 
Press.  The  Mediterranean  in  1789,  No.  5.  France,  1789,  No.  7.  Belgium 
and  Holland,  1789,  No.  10.  Germany,  1789,  No.  11.  Switzerland,  1789, 
No.  15.  Italy,  1789,  No.  16.  Austria-Hungary  to  1789,  No.  19.  Austria- 
Hungary,  1 789-1815,  No.  20. 


THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION  12 1 

Bibliography 

Belloc.     The  French  Revolution.    Holt. 

Fling.    Source  Problems  on  the  French  Revolution.    Harper. 

Gardiner.     The  French  Revolution.    Longmans. 

Hayes.     The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe.     Volume  I. 

Macmillan. 
Jeffery.    New  Europe,  1789-1889.    Houghton  Mifiain. 
Johnston.     The  French  Revolution.    Holt. 
Library  of  Original  Sources.     Vol.  VII.     University   Research  Extension 

Co. 
Lowell.     The  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution.     Houghton  Mifflin. 
Mallet.     The  French  Revolution.     Scribner. 
Mathews.     The  French  Revolution.     Longmans. 
Morris.     The  French  Revolution.     Scribner, 

Plunket.     The  Fall  of  the  Old  Order,  1763-1815.    Oxford  University  Press. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe.    Vol.  I.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.    Readings  in  Modern  European  History.   Vol.  I.   Ginn. 
Rose.     The  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  Era.     Putnam. 
Seignobos.     Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 
Stephens.     Revolutionary  Europe.     Rivingtons. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  STRUGGLE  WITH    - 
EUROPE 

58.   Decline   of  the   Monarchy.  —  Already  symptoms  were 
not  lacking  that  the  days  of  the  monarchy  in  France  were  num- 
bered.   Although  the  National  Assembly  had  shown  itself  no 
friend  of  democracy  in  the  modern  sense,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
conduct  of  king  and  court  had  done  much  to  bring  into  disrepute 
Effect  of  the      the  monarchic  idea,  even  among  its  friends  and  admirers.    His 
FUg^^otthe       attempt  to  flee  the  country,  abandoning  by  so  doing  many  of  his 
King  friends  and  supporters  to  the  fury  and  uncertainties  of  possible 

•foreign  war  and  of  domestic  violence,  forfeited  much  of  the 
respect  and  loyalty  which  still  dominated  so  many  of  his  subjects. 
Epithets  such  as  "  Beast! "  "  Coward! "  and  the  like,  were  on  the 
lips  of  thousands  of  Frenchmen.  The  queen  also  came  in  for 
a  large  amount  of  abuse,  as  she  was  looked  upon  as  the  real 
author  of  the  plot. 

Scarcely  a  month  had  passed  after  this  event  before  there  was 
a  clear  indication  of  the  rising  tide  in  favor  of  the  complete 
Massacre  of  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy.  This  took  the  form  of  a  meeting 
champdeMars  ^^  protest  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  July  17,  1791,  for  the  sig- 
nature of  a  petition  against  the  continuance  of  the  monarchy. 
The  National  Guard  was  called  out  to  maintain  order;  the 
troops  came  to  blows  with  the  mob;  and  several  lives  were 
lost.  The  supporters  of  the  movement  and  all  friends  of  de- 
mocracy had  received  a  setback.  The  impression  which  re- 
mained among  the  masses  was  one  of  bitterness  towards  the 
Assembly  and  the  monarchy.  The  bourgeoisie  were  more  than 
ever  convinced  by  the  actions  of  the  mob  upon  this  occasion 


THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC  123 

that  their  own  safety  could  only  be  secured  by  maintaining 
the  existing  arrangements. 

The  outbreak  of  foreign  war  changed  everything.    Ever  since  Emigration  of 
the  fall  of  the  Bastille  the  nobles  had  been  leaving  the  country,  *^*  ^°*'^*"* 
and  after  the  flight  to  Varennes  they  began  to  pour  across  the 
frontier  in  greater  numbers.    They  were  now  looking  for  an 
opportunity  to  regain  their  lost  power.     With  this  end  in  view 
they  had  been  intriguing  with  certain  of  the  German  princes, 
with  the  Emperor  Leopold,  and  with^  the  king   of   Prussia.   Attitude  of  the 
Many  of  these  rulers  saw  in  the  progress  of  the  revolution  in  ^™p'''®' 
France  a  menace  to  their  own  authority  and  were,  therefore,   and  Russia 
impressed  with  the  urgency  of  making  common  cause  with  the 
discredited  French  king  and  queen.     The  Empress  Catherine 
of  Russia,  believing  the  time  ripe  for  the  seizure  of  a  part  or  all 
of  the  tottering  kingdom  of  Poland,^  was  delighted  to  see  the 
gaze  of  her  rivals,  Austria  and  Prussia,  directed  toward  the  west, 
so  that  she  might  have  a  free  hand  in  the  east.     To  this  end 
she  threw  her  influence  on  the  side  of  the  emigres,  as  the  exiled 
French  nobles  were  called,  to  embroil  Austria  and  Prussia  in  a 
war  with  France.    The  Emperor  Leopold  and  King  Frederick 
William  of  Prussia  finally  reached  a  partial  understanding  as 
to  the  situation  in  France  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Pillnitz "  Declaration 
(August  27,  1 791),  in  which  they  proclaimed  to  Europe  their  °'  p^^^*^ 
intention  of  safeguarding  the  interests  of   the  imperiled  king 
and  queen  of  France,  provided  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  were 
disposed  to  act  with  them. 

59.  Rise  of  Clubs  and  Parties.  —  Meanwhile  the  new  Legis- 
lative Assembly  had  met.  The  National  Assembly,  with  a  mis- 
directed show  of  patriotism,  had  made  it  impossible  for  any  of 
their  number  to  sit  in  the  new  Legislative  Assembly.  Party 
lines  which  had  developed  in  the  first  assembly  began  to  be  more 
sharply  drawn  in  this  new  body.  The  removal  of  the  National 
Assembly  to  Paris  in  October,  1789,  had  been  marked  by  the 
formation  of  a  strong  pohtical  club,  known  as  the  Jacobin  Club  The  jacobins 
1  See  map  opposite  page  178. 


124     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

from  its  place  of  meeting.  At  the  outset  this  had  consisted  of 
those  deputies  who  were  especially  desirous  of  giving  France  a 
constitutional  government.  This  was  clearly  indicated  by  their 
official  name,  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  Constitution. 
They  met  to  discuss  the  various  measures  proposed  in  the 


Danton 


Marat 

MiRABEAU 


Robespierre 


Assembly  and  admitted  to  their  membership  men  of  letters, 
lawyers,  and  wealthy  bourgeois.  Societies  began  to  be  formed 
throughout  the  country  on  the  same  model  as  the  Jacobin  Club 
at  the  capital.  Even  before  the  meeting  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  these  had  affiliated  with  the  parent  society,  and 
Jacobinism,  as  their  teachings  were  called,  had  become  a  well- 
recognized  political  creed.  These  clubs  undoubtedly  rendered 
a  great  service  to  the  country  at  large  by  informing  and  instruct- 
ing the  thinking  classes  and  by  welding  them  together  for  con- 
certed action.    Many  friends  of  popular  rights  had  been  sorely 


THE  FRENCH   REPUBLIC  125 

disappointed  in  the  new  constitution  on  account  of  its  aristo- 
cratic character.  One  of  these,  a  young  lawyer  named  Danton, 
had  therefore  formed  the  Club  of  the  Cordeliers.  The  members  The  CordeUera 
of  this  organization  had  taken  the  initiative  in  the  affair  of  the 
Champ  de  Mars  and  were  now  biding  the  time  when,  supported 
by  the  workers  and  the  rabble  of  the  poorer  quarters  of  the  city, 
they  might  rally  all  citizens  to  the  watchword  of  liberty  and 
equality.  Their  influence  in  the  Assembly  at  this  time  was 
comparatively  slight. 

When  the  Legislative  Assembly  opened  its  sessions  on  Octo- 
ber 1, 1 791,  all  the  deputies  were  a  unit  in  their  desire  to  maintain 
the  constitution;  all  stood  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  their  distrust 
of  the  king.  The  question  which  began  to  divide  them  and 
give  rise  to  a  new  party  line-up  was.  What  attitude  should  they 
take  in  view  of  the  king's  apparent  disloyalty  to  the  work  so 
recently  accomplished?  The  resulting  differences  of  opinion 
helped  to  bring  into  existence  other  political  clubs  and  separated 
the  Legislative  Assembly  into  three  well-defined  parties.  The 
conservative  deputies  were  members  of  the  club  known  as  the 
Feuillants  and  wished  to  maintain  the  king  as  president  of  a 
hereditary  republic.  They  became  more  royalistic  in  their 
sympathies  with  the  passage  of  time.  Their  influence,  however, 
was  never  decisive  and  they  gradually  lost  ground  and  passed 
into  oblivion.  The  Jacobin  element  divided  its  adherence  be- 
tween the  leaders  of  a  group  of  deputies  known  as  the  Giron- 
dists from  the  province  of  the  Gironde  in  the  southwest  of 
France,  and  another  group,  afterwards  known  as  the  Mountain 
from  the  seats  which  they  occupied  in  the  Convention  which 
later  replaced  the  Legislative  Assembly.  The  Girondists  ulti- 
mately favored  the  establishment  of  a  repubhc,  but  not  until 
the  constitutional  monarchy  had  been  proved  impossible  by 
the  failure  of  the  king  to  work  according  to  its  spirit.  The 
Mountain,  the  most  radical  element  of  all,  gradually  came  to 
be  known  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the  democratic  aspirations  of 
the  masses.    It  looked  to  the  Paris  mob  for  support  in  the 


126    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

overthrow  of  the  existing  government  and  labored  for  the 
estabUshment  of  a  repubhc,  grasping  at  whatever  means  offered 
themselves.  The  influence  of  the  American  Revolution  may  be 
traced  in  this  division.  In  certain  quarters,  at  least,  the  re- 
publican idea  had  taken  firm  root.    The  questions  to  be  an- 


swered were,  What  sort  of  a  republic  should  be  established? 
Who  were  to  be  its  real  rulers? 

60.  Opposition  of  the  King  to  the  Assembly  and  the  Out- 
break of  War.  —  The  massing  of  hostile  nobles  on  the  frontiers  — 
the  king's  brothers  among  them  —  and  the  knowledge  that  there 
were  many  traitors  within  the  country,  prompted  the  Assembly 
to  pass  three  measures.  Two  of  these  were  directed  against  the 
dangers  threatening  them  upon  the  frontier;  the  other  sought  to 
remove  the  lurking  danger  within.     Many  of  the  priests,  known 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  127 

as  the  non-juring  clergy,  had  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  The  Non-jurin 
Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  and  were  stirring  up  trouble  ^*®''*^ 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.     By  the  first  of  these  measures 
they  were  required  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  within  eight 
days  under  the  penalty  of  forfeiting  their  livings  and  of  being 
treated  as  ''suspects."  ^    The  emigres  were  also  declared  to  be 
traitors  to  their  country  and  were  ordered  to  cease  mobilizing 
on  the  frontier  under  penalty  of  the  confiscation  of  their  aban- 
doned properties.     Finally,  the  Count  of  Provence,  the  elder  of 
the  king's  brothers,  was  ordered  to  return  to  France  within 
two  months  or  to  forfeit  his  claims  to  the  throne.     When  these 
decrees  were  submitted  to  King  Louis  he  refused  to  sign  them.   The  King's 
On  the  other  hand,  he  sent  letters  to  his  brothers  ordering  them   ^®*°®^ 
to  return  to  France  and  professed  to  the  Assembly  his  willingness 
to  make  war  upon  the  German  princes  for  encouraging  these 
hostile  demonstrations  on  the  frontier. 

This  attitude  did  not  satisfy  the  people.  They  saw  in  his 
vetoes  evidence  enough  of  his  sympathy  with  their  enemies  and 
a  refusal  to  proceed  against  them.  The  Jacobins  and  Girondists, 
however,  were  anxious  for  war,  as  they  saw  in  a  declaration  of  war, 
and  a  successful  campaign  against  their  foes  without,  the  guaran- 
tee of  the  revolutionary  measures  within.  They  had  already  be- 
gun to  be  carried  away  by  the  magnificent  idea  of  spreading 
broadcast  throughout  Europe  the  joyful  tidings  of  liberty  and 
equality.  Even  the  Feuillants  approved  of  a  vigorous  foreign 
war,  as  by  this  means  they  expected  the  king  to  vindicate  himself 
and  at  the  same  time  give  added  strength  to  the  monarchic  idea. 
War  was  therefore  declared  on  April  20,  1792,  not  upon  the  Holy  Declaration 
Roman  Empire,  but  upon  Austria.  The  proclamation  was  di-  °'  ^" 
rected  against  Francis  II,  "King  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary." 

61.  The  Abolition  of  Royalty  and  its  Consequences.  —  Un- 
fortunately for  King  Louis  the  struggle  opened  badly  for  France. 

^  A  name  given  to  all  who  were  opposed  to  the  changes  which  the 
Revolution  had  brought  with  it.  Such  a  charge  often  meant  arrest,  con- 
fiscation of  property,  and  possible  death. 


12^     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


An  utter  lack  of  preparation  resulted  in  reverses  serious  enough 
to  arouse  the  people  of  Paris  to  a  fever  of  apprehension  and 
alarm.  The  Assembly  felt  the  necessity  of  passing  new  measures 
to  safeguard  the  country,  but  the  king  was  unwise  enough  to 
veto  them.  Suspicion  of  the  king's  motives  and  intentions 
increased,  and,  as  an  immediate  consequence,  the  people  pre- 
pared for  a  great  demonstration  and  protest.  On  the  20th  of 
June,  therefore,  the  Paris  rabble  overran  the  palace  of  the 
Tuileries  and  marched  in  procession  before  the  king,  who 
courageously  took  up  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  palace  while 
the  mob  filed  before  him.  The  Jacobins  were  undoubtedly 
behind  the  movement.  They  sought  by  these  means  to  terrify 
khe  king  and  to  secure  his  assent  to  the  measures  which  they 
desired.  If  such  was  their  purpose,  it  failed  entirely.  Instead 
a  strong  sentiment  of  loyalty  to  the  monarch  was  aroused, 
especially  throughout  the  provinces,  where  such  proceedings  on 
the  part  of  the  Paris  populace  were  strongly  resented  as  high- 
handed and  presumptuous  and  an  insult  to  the  nation.  The 
provinces  did  not  wish  Paris  to  speak  for  the  country  at  large. 

Two  circumstances,  however,  nullified  these  impressions  and 
deprived  the  king  of  the  advantages  which  might  otherwise 
have  been  his.  The  one  was  the  entry  of  Prussia  into  the  war 
early  in  July,  and  the  other,  the  publication  two  weeks  later  in 
the  city  of  Paris  of  the  Manifesto  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick. 
The  latter  especially  sealed  the  fate  of  the  monarchy.  The 
Duke  of  Brunswick  had  been  intrusted  with  the  leadership  of 
the  invading  Prussian  army.  With  the  assistance  of  some  of 
the  emigrant  nobles  he  drew  up  an  insulting  proclamation, 
threatening  with  the  direst  punishment  all  who  should  resist  his 
army  and  promising  to  visit  upon  Paris  military  execution  and 
annihilation  if  any  harm  came  to  the  king  or  queen.  "Had 
Austria  and  Prussia  deliberately  planned  to  aid  the  Girondists 
and  Jacobins  in  destroying  the  French  monarchy,  they  could 
have  done  nothing  more  suited  to  that  end." 

The  answer  to  this  direct  challenge  was  the  attack  upon  the 


of  the  "Fed- 
eration " 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  129 

Tuileries  on  the  loth  of  August  and  the  September  Massacres, 
less  than  a  month  later.  Thousands  of  Frenchmen  from  all 
parts  of  the  country  had  been  gathering  at  Paris  to  celebrate 
the  anniversary  of  the  "Federation."  This  was  a  solemn  Anniyeriary 
meeting  of  delegates  from  all  parts  of  France  who  had  first 
sworn  allegiance  to  the  new  order  of  things  on  July  14,  1790. 
Among  the  delegates  on  this  occasion  was  a  group  from  Mar- 
seilles, who  entered  Paris  singing  the  song  which  had  just  been 
composed  by  Rouget  de  ITsle,  thereafter  known  as  the  Mar- 
seillaise. These  strangers,  in  conjunction  with  the  Parisian 
populace  and  with  Danton  as  the  moving  spirit,  overthrew  the 
existing  government  of  Paris.  The  bells  were  then  rung  and 
the  people  were  called  to  arms.  On  the  morning  of  the  loth 
of  August  they  attacked  the  Tuileries,  which  was  defended  by 
a  few  regiments  of  Swiss  guards.  Contradictory  orders,  issued 
either  by  the  king  or  upon  his  authority,  gave  the  attack  the 
semblance  of  a  massacre.  The  royal  family  fled  for  refuge  to 
the  hall  where  the  Assembly  was  in  session,  and  there  the 
deputies  decreed  the  calling  of  a  Convention  to  reorganize  the 
government  upon  a  more  democratic  basis.  They  suspended 
the  king  as  executive  head  of  the  government,  but  left  his 
ultimate  fate  in  the  hands  of  the  new  assembly  so  soon  to 
meet.  They  also  named  a  provisional  executive  council,  with 
Danton  as  its  chief  member.  From  this  time  forth,  for  months 
to  come,  the  municipal  government  of  Paris  largely  directed 
the  course  of  the  Revolution.  The  radical  element  of  Paris 
had  come  into  its  own. 

Early  in  September  this  element  gave  a  more  startling  proof 
of  their  power.  The  onward  advance  of  the  Prussians  con- 
tinued unchecked  and  the  opposing  forces  melted  away  before 
them.  France  was  totally  unprepared  for  war.  Her  troops  Miutary 
had  been  demoralized  by  the  rapid  course  of  events  and  by  the 
loss  of  so  many  officers,  all  of  whom  had  been  recruited  from  the 
nobility.  The  new  government  had  failed  thus  far  to  make 
adequate  provision  for  a  standing  army  free  from  the  suspicion 


Situation 


130     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

of  disloyalty.  The  people,  however,  attributed  the  failures 
which  marked  the  opening  campaigns  to  the  disloyalty  and 
treason  of  king,  court,  and  nobles.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  they  were  doing  all  in  their  power  to  aid  the  advancing  foe. 
The  attack  upon  the  Tuileries  had  been  followed  by  the  whole- 
sale arrest  of  many  nobles  accused  of  conspiring  with  the 
invaders  to  overthrow  the  republic.  On  August  14  came  the 
news  of  La  Fayette's  effort  to  turn  his  army  against  Paris,  fol- 
lowed by  his  desertion  (Aug.  19th) ;  and  on  the  same  day  the 
Prussian  army  entered  Lorraine.  Four  days  later  it  took 
Longwy  and  on  the  30th  invested  Verdun.  This  was  the  last 
obstacle  to  be  overcome  in  their  march  upon  Paris,  and  it 
was  generally  known  that  Paris  could  not  hold  out  for  more 
than  two  days.  Beside  themselves  with  excitement  as  the  result 
of  this  series  of  disasters,  the  people  of  Paris  rushed  to  arms 
at  the  call  of  the  city  government  and  the  cry,  "The  father- 
land in  danger!"  It  needed  but  the  merest  suggestion  from  a 
vehement  journalist  named  Marat  to  precipitate  the  so-called 
September  Massacres.  He  pointed  out  the  folly  of  marching  off 
to  the  front  and  leaving  traitors  in  their  rear  who,  sword  in 
hand,  only  awaited  the  word  to  rise  against  the  people,  restore 
the  king  to  his  own,  and  wreak  a  bloody  vengeance  upon  his 
enemies.  For  four  days  and  nights  groups  of  executioners  made 
the  rounds  of  the  prisons  in  which  the  nobles  were  confined 
and,  setting  up  a  sort  of  drum  head  court,  condemned  to  death 
and  immediate  execution  hundreds  of  individuals  suspected  of 
treason  towards  the  republic.  These  included  old  men,  priests, 
and  women.  A  wave  of  horror  not  only  swept  over  France  but 
over  all  Europe.  The  Legislative  Assembly,  which  had  not  yet 
given  way  to  the  Convention,  disclaimed  all  responsibility  for 
these  actions,  but  it  undoubtedly  contained  many  members 
who  approved  of  them.  Such  acts  horrified  the  Girondists. 
They  blamed  the  Mountain  for  these  developments,  and  from 
this  time  forward  they  became  more  and  more  hostile  to  each 
other.    Two  weeks  after  this  wholesale  clearance  of  the  prisons, 


THE  FRENCH   REPUBLIC 


13 


of  Valmy 


the  Assembly  adjourned,  and  the  very  same  day  came  the  news 
of  the  check  of  the  Prussian  advance  at  Valmy  by  the  French  Victory 
armies  under  Dumouriez  and  Kellerman  (September  20,  1792). 
62.  The  Convention  and  the  Declaration  of  the  Republic.  — 
The  task  which  confronted  the  Convention  which  had  now  met 
was  first  of  all  to  give  France  a  new  form  of  government  based 


■^ 

^  ■ 

^-  ^-J    r 

^ 

•i 

Bp^w^^' 

P^l 

■  ^ 

,^^ 

mr0f' 

^^.-_^__;;,^^H! 

F 

ft 

-H^ 

..J^ 

fct^'        1 

IKfU'MH 

mm 

si 

M 

£^ 

m 
W 

p;,S% 

1 

•  ^^.     •      1^ 

^''^1 

1     '.  '^, 

w 

V-5' 

^f;J 

m 

{^ 

iA^ 

i 

^iim^      V 

Marat  Speaking  before  the  National  Assembly 
Marat  had  practised  as  a  physician  in  London,  and  enjoyed  some  little 
reputation  as  a  scientist  because  of  his  attacks  on  Sir  Isaac  Newton  arid 
Voltaire.  His  newspaper  Ami  du  Pen  pie  breathed  his  doctrine  of  suspicion. 
After  the  flight  of  the  king,  Marat  made  a  speech  before  the  Assembly 
openly  advocating  the  appointment  of  a  dictator  with  power  to  execute  all 
suspected  persons. 

upon  democratic  lines.     To  do  this  it  was  necessary  to  dispose  Republic 

of  the  king.     The  first  act  of  the  deputies  was  to  aboHsh  royalty      ^^^"^^ 

as  an  institution  and  to  declare  France  a  republic.     Almost 

from  the  beginning  of  its  meetings,  the  Revolution  began  to  take 

on  a  serious  aspect.     The  Convention  itself  belgan  to  be  torn  by  Party  strife 

bitter  party  strife,  a  condition  which  was  reflected  in  the  events 


32 


ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Paris 

vs. 

the  Provinces 


Trial  of 
Louis  XVI 


upon  the  frontier  and  which  brought  France  face  to  face  with 
utter  annihilation.  The  Girondists  had  already  broken  with 
the  Mountain.  They  began  to  see  that  they  had  loosed  forces 
which,  if  not  properly  controlled,  would  plunge  the  country 
into  the  greatest  of  catastrophes.  They  had  all  the  distrust 
pecuUar  to  the  prosperous  middle  classes  of  the  unpropertied 
working  class  and  resented  the  idea  of  dictation  by  armed  mobs. 
The  Mountain,  which  was  composed  essentially  of  men  of  action, 
with  a  clearly  defined  purpose  before  it,  now  made  common  cause 
with  the  masses  and  did  not  hesitate  to  employ  any  means  by 
which  its  ends  might  be  realized.  Paris  was  looked  upon  as  the 
real  heart  of  France,  and  the  Mountain  desired  that  the  entire 
country  should  ratify  all  the  actions  of  its  capital.  It  was 
essentially  the  question  of  the  part  which  Paris  should  play  in 
the  Revolution  which  divided  the  Convention.  The  Girondists 
represented  the  provinces  and  were  hostile  to  the  newly  organ- 
ized Paris  Commune  in  which  Danton  exercised  such  tremendous 
influence.  By  this  time  two  other  leaders  of  the  Mountain  had 
appeared,  Marat  and  a  young  lawyer  named  Robespierre,  and 
the  Girondists  feared,  and  perhaps  with  reason,  that  the  entire 
work  of  the  Revolution  would  be  undone  through  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  triumvirate  composed  of  these  two  and  Danton, 
with  the  latter  as  the  driving  force. 

Ever  since  the  king  had  been  deprived  of  his  office,  there  had 
been  a  growing  demand  that  he  be  confronted  with  the  charge 
of  treason  so  frequently  brought  against  him.  The  outcry 
increased  when  it  became  known  that  considerable  corres- 
pondence between  the  king  and  the  emigrant  nobles  had  been 
discovered  in  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries.  The  Convention 
therefore  resolved  itself  into  a  court,  and  for  a  month  its  sessions 
were  devoted  to  sifting  and  weighing  the  evidence  against 
Citizen  Capet,  or  Louis  Capet,  as  the  king  was  now  called.  In 
spite  of  the  eloquent  pleadings  of  the  lawyer  for  the  defence, 
the  king  was  finally  found  guilty  of  conspiracy  by  an  over- 
whelming vote  and  was  condemned  to  die.     The  execution  took 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  133 


-    -  --. 

CONVENTION   NAIK^ 

DEFENSE 

I)  E     L  0  U  I  S,. 

froncncee    k   la.    Barre  de    U    Coir.- 
Rationale  ^ 

cntlon 

f.e.AfncrfJf  i/>'  Pe'ee^  i-rc  t-igzjan  praaierdela  Er'puhlK^nfl 

Par  ie  Ctloyer»;<   DKSF.ZE  I'ua  dc  ses  D( 

ff'nKUrf 

officiciis;' 

J%g9%.%H.-H     fAJt     <?RDRi:    »e      J-*    C05VK^T!0^     X' 

iTfi'tjs: 

/    '        A    PARIS, 

'?■"'''  •  - 

DE    li'IMPRniERlE    XATIONALH. 

1  7P  - 

J 

Y.  ?    '^-  . 

The  Defence  of  Louis  XVI 
The  title  page  of  the  speech  of  the  advocate  appointed  to  defend  the 
king.    The  queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  has  written  across  the  page  in  Latin 
and  in  French,  "Some  one  had  to  die  for  the  people." 


134     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


His  Execution 


Effects 
upon  Europe 


Effects 
upon  France 


Treason  of 
Dumouriez 


Fall  of  the 
Girondists 


place  on  the  present  Place  de  la  Concorde,  where  the  guillotine 
had  been  set  up.  Louis  XVI  throughout  his  whole  career  never 
showed  himself  more  of  a  king  than  at  the  trial  and  upon  the 
scaffold. 

The  news  of  the  trial  and  execution  of  Louis  XVI  came  as  a 
great  shock  to  states  which  had  hitherto  been  more  or  less 
sympathetic  towards  the  Revolution.  This  was  especially  true 
of  England.  Royalty  in  Europe  was  profoundly  stirred,  and  the 
immediate  result  was  a  hostile  combination  of  practically  all 
western  Europe  against  France.  Nothing  daunted  by  this 
attitude,  the  Convention  boldly  took  the  initiative  and  de- 
clared war  upon  the  rulers  of  England,  Spain,  Holland,  and 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  France  now  found  herself  entirely 
surrounded  by  enemies,  and,  to  make  matters  worse,  serious 
opposition  had  developed  at  home.  The  entire  district  of  the 
Vendee  in  western  France,  which  had  always  been  intensely  roy- 
alist and  was  already  disaffected,  now  arose  in  insurrection,  and 
many  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  provinces  made  the  death  of  the 
king  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  upon  the  Convention.  Dumou- 
riez, the  only  general  who  had  thus  far  displayed  any  genius  for 
fighting,  now  proclaimed  his  hostility  to  the  Convention  and 
prepared  to  lead  his  troops  against  them.  His  soldiers,  how- 
ever, refused  to  follow  him,  and  he  fled  to  Holland  for  safety. 

Unfortunately  for  France  the  Convention  was  so  divided  at 
this  moment  that  it  too  became  a  great  battleground.  The 
two  great  parties  which  had  done  so  much  to  shape  the  course 
of  the  Revolution  now  clinched  in  a  life  and  death  struggle  for 
supremacy.  It  was  a  battle  of  Titans,  but  the  issue  was  not 
long  in  doubt.  The  Mountain  triumphed  by  summoning  to 
their  aid  the  people  of  Paris.  By  force  of  arms  they  placed 
under  arrest  twenty-nine  of  the  leading  Girondist  deputies. 
Some  fled  to  their  provinces  for  safety  and  there  began  to  or- 
ganize armed  resistance  to  the  high-handed  acts  of  a  body 
and  of  a  city  which,  in  their  opinion,  claimed  falsely  to  be  act- 
ing in  the  interests  of  the  whole  nation. 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  135 

Hastily  the  remaining  members  now  prepared  the  new 
constitution,  —  the  task  for  which  they  had  been  originally 
summoned.  This  was  known  as  the  Constitution  of  the  Year  I, 
i.e.  of  the  first  year  of  the  Repubhc,  from  which  they  had  now 
agreed  to  date  events  in  the  future.  Its  chief  merit  lay  in  its 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  manhood  suffrage  —  a  recognition 
which  counted  for  little  at  the  time,  as  this  government  soon 
gave  way  to  the  arbitrary  rule  of  the  Convention  and  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety. 

63.  The  Crisis  of  1793  and  the  Formation  of  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety.  —  Matters  had  now  come  to  a  critical  pass. 
Although  the  revolutionary  armies  at  •  Valmy  the  preceding 
September  and  at  Jemappes  two  months  later  had  displayed 
the  greatest  enthusiasm  and  had  achieved  the  impossible  by 
stemming  and  beating  back  the  great  tide  of  invasion,  no 
provision  had  yet  been  made  for  organizing  and  beating  into 
shape  the  very  crude  instruments  with  which  these  victories  had 
been  attained.  The  French  armies  now  proved  entirely  inade- 
quate to  meet  the  new  danger.  The  armies  of  Spain  advanced 
through  the  Pyrenees;  the  Austrians  took  Conde  and  Valen- 
ciennes; the  French  fell  back  before  the  Prussians  in  Alsace. 
Then,  too,  the  foes  of  the  Convention  swarmed  within  the 
country.  It  was  no  time  for  putting  into  operation  a  govern- 
ment which  was  even  more  decentralized  than  tliat  of  1791. 
The  nation  not  only  faced  a  foreign  war  of  great  magnitude 
without,  but  civil  strife  within.  These  conditions  explain  the 
extreme  measures  which  marked  the  year  1793,  which  has  been 
justly  regarded  as  the  great  turning-point  in  the  entire 
Revolution. 

The  situation  called  for  the  strongest  possible  executive  body. 
This  was  found  in  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  twelve  men  The  Committee 
chosen  by  the  Convention  from  their  own  number  to  handle  all  °*  ^^"^  ^^^^ 
problems  of  administration  and  to  decide  upon  a  proper  course 
of  action.    The  government  was  *'  more  arbitrary,  more  absolute, 
more  highly  centralized  than  had  ever  been  the  absolute  mon- 


136     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Deputies 
on  Mission 


archy,"  even  under  a  Richelieu  or  a  Louis  XIV.  The  leading 
Its  Organization  members  of  this  Committee,  who  were  chosen  for  a  month  at  a 
time,  but  might  be  reelected  indefinitely,  were  Carnot,  to  whom 
were  intrusted  matters  pertaining  to  the  army,  Barere,  Robes- 
pierre, and  Saint- Just.  A  Revolutionary  Tribunal  became  sub- 
ject to  their  authority,  under  Jheir  direction  looked  after  all 
prosecutions  of  suspects,  and  set  itself  to  work  to  rid  the  land  of 
all  traitors.  The  work  of  the  Committee  was  greatly  furthered 
by  the  cooperation  of  the  revolutionary  committees  which  were 
established  in  the  various  cities  and  by  the  Jacobin  organization 
with  its  numerous  branches  throughout  the  country.  The 
most  effective  agency  at  their  command  was  the  group  of 
"deputies  on  mission,"  as  they  were  called,  who  were  assigned 
to  the  different  armies  and  to  the  various  cities  and  depart- 
ments into  which  the  country  was  divided  to  see  to  it  that  the 
commands  of  the  Committee  were  obeyed.  Death  became  the 
penalty  not  alone  for  disobedience  but  for  failure. 

64.  Work  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  —  The  Com- 
mittee of  PubUc  Safety  prosecuted  its  work  with  vigor.  Its 
highly  centralized  form  of  organization  made  it  a  most  effec- 
tive instrument  in  securing  order  at  home  and  in  winning  vic- 
tories abroad.  France  was  virtually  placed  under  a  mihtary 
government;  martial  law  reigned  supreme.  One  of  the  earliest 
measures  of  the  government  was  to  decree  a  general  conscrip- 
tion, —  a  "levy  in  mass"  as  it  was  called  —  by  which  a  half 
million  or  more  men  were  called  to  the  defence  of  the  im- 
periled country.  It  also  placed  a  heavy  war  tax  of  1,000,000 
francs  upon  the  well-to-do,  passed  stringent  laws  against  sus- 
pects, and  sought  to  safeguard  the  people  against  the  rise 
in  prices  consequent  upon  a  state  of  war  by  the  "Law  of  the 
Maximum,"  which  forbade  the  selling  of  grain  and  flour  at  a 
higher  price  than  that  fixed  by  each  commune.  The  most 
effective  method,  however,  which  the  government  employed  to 
Reign  of  Terror  handle  the  domestic  problem  was  "terror."  The  "Law  of  the 
Suspects"  proclaimed  as  traitors  not  only  those  who  sought  in 


Conscription 


War  Taxes 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  137 

any  way  to  deprive  the  people  of  the  hberty  which  they  had  so 
dearly  won,  but  those  who  were  doing  nothing  to  safeguard  it. 
Wholesale  arrests  followed  its  enactment,  and  every  day  saw  not 
one  or  two  but  whole  batches  of  victims  handed  over  to  the 
guillotine.  Among  these  were  the  queen,  Marie  Antoinette, 
Bailly,  the  former  mayor  of  Paris,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  cousin 
of  the  late  king,  and  many  Girondists.  From  April  6,  1793,  to 
July  27,  1794,  when  terror  was  the  deliberate  pohcy  of  the 
government,  2596  persons  were  executed  in  the  city  of  Paris 
alone.  The  example  set  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  at  the 
capital  was  followed  in  the  provinces.  It  is  estimated  that 
12,000  persons  were  condemned  to  death,  among  whom  were 
about  4000  peasants  and  3000  from  the  working  class.  In  the 
city  of  Lyons  the  victims  were  shot;  at  Nantes  they  were 
drowned  by  hundreds  in  the  river  Loire  without  even  the  sem- 
blance of  a  trial.  So  many  victims  perished  here  that  the  water 
was  contaminated  and  the  authorities  forbade  the  eating  of 
fish.  By  such  rigorous  measures  the  government  restored  order 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  France. 

Their  activities  were  equally  effective  in  the  conduct  of  the 
war.     Carnot  reorganized  the  demoralized  troops,  placed  capable  Services  of 
generals  over  them,  provided  for  their  equipment  and  sub-   ^*"*°* 
sistence,  and,  in  short,  brought  order  out  of  the  chaos  and  con- 
fusion which  had  prevailed  up  to  this  time  in  the  miUtary  arm  of 
the  government.     Europe  has  seldom  witnessed  such  a  trans- 
formation in  a  fighting  force.    The  task  before  Carnot  was  to 
utilize  to  the  advantage  of  the  nation  the  tremendous  enthusiasm 
and  the  patriotism  so  characteristic  of  the  rank  and  file  of  these 
armies  and  to  give  it  an  effective  means  of  expressing  itself  upon 
the  battlefield.    The  spirit  of  sacrifice  which  had  taken  posses-  Spuit  of 
sion  of  so  many  of  the  soldiers  is  illustrated  by  the  following  *^®  Soldiers 
extract  from  a  letter  written  by  a  corporal  to  his  peasant  mother : 
"When  I  see  you  sorrowing  over  my  lot,  it  pains  me  more  than 
all  the  evils  which  I  experience  and  draws  tears  from  my  eyes. 
Rejoice  instead !    Either  you  will  see  me  returning  covered  with 


138     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Military 
Successes 


Conquests  of 
the  French 
Armies 


The 

Revolutionary 
Propaganda 
and  its 
Reception 


glory  or  you  will  have  a  son  worthy  of  the  name  of  French  citizen 
who  will  know  how  to  die  in  defence  of  his  country.  When  our 
fatherland  calls  upon  us  to  defend  it  we  should  fly  to  the  rescue 
as  I  would  hurry  to  a  good  meal.  Our  lives,  our  possessions,  our 
faculties,  are  not  our  own;  they  belong  to  the  nation,  to  our 
country.  We  are  here  under  conditions  which  savor  only  of 
death,  but  I  await  it  with  calmness  of  spirit." 

The  success  which  crowned  the  efforts  of  Carnot  are  attested 
by  the  title  "Organizer  of  Victory,"  which  was  later  bestowed 
upon  him  by  a  zealous  defender  of  his  acts.  Within  a  few 
months  after  his  entry  into  the  great  committee,  the  French 
armies  had  entirely  expelled  the  Austrians  and  Prussians;  had 
recovered  the  great  cities  of  Lyons  and  Toulon,  which  had  been 
in  open  revolt  against  the  government;  and  had  overwhelmed 
the  Vendean  armies  upon  several  bloody  battlefields,  reducing 
at  last  this  disaffected  province  to  submission  to  the  acts  of 
the  central  government. 

This  same  amazing  energy  and  driving  power  were  soon 
rewarded  by  a  series  of  victories  on  the  frontiers.  The  eleven 
armies  which  had  been  placed  in  the  field  not  only  drove  the 
invaders  from  French  soil  but  reconquered  Belgium  and  occu- 
pied the  great  cities  of  Cologne  and  Coblenz.  All  this  was 
accomplished  by  the  end  of  1794  —  a  veritable  annus  mira- 
hilis  in  French  history. 

Even  before  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  was  established, 
the  armies  of  France  had  carried  the  gospel  of  liberty  and 
equality  beyond  the  French  borders  and  it  had  there  found  a 
ready  acceptance.  Back  in  1792  the  Girondists,  conceiving  it  as 
their  mission  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  downtrodden  and  op- 
pressed of  every  land,  had  proclaimed  their  willingness  to  assist 
their  neighbors  in  throwing  off  the  heavy  burdens  under  which 
they  suffered.  This  same  purpose  also  animated  the  Convention, 
which  promised  ''Succor  and  fraternity  to  all  peoples  who  shall 
desire  to  receive  their  liberty."  In  1792  the  seed  had  already 
been  planted  by  French  armies  operating  in  Belgii\m,  in  parts  of 


THE  FRENCH   REPUBLIC  139 

Germany,  and  in  northwestern  Italy.  These  armies  had  been 
forced  to  retire,  however,  before  much  had  been  accomphshed. 
The  French  patriots  seized  upon  this  new  opportunity  with  an 
even  greater  enthusiasm  and  began  again  to  overrun  the  Rhen- 
ish provinces  and  Belgium,  proclaiming  loudly  the  welcome 
tidings.  More  unworthy  motives,  however,  soon  came  to  the 
fore.  The  Convention  decreed  that  in  every  country  occupied 
by  the  French  armies  the  feudal  rights,  the  nobiUty,  and  all 
existing  privileges  should  be  abolished  and  that  the  ''properties 
belonging  to  the  prince,  to  his  satellites,  and  to  the  religious  and 
secular  communities  should  be  placed  under  the  safe-keeping 
of  the  French  Republic."  This  act  virtually  amounted 
to  confiscation.  The  war  was  taking  on  a  new  character.  Changing 
It  was  no  longer  a  mere  crusade  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  thenar"  ° 
but  a  war  of  conquest.  Side  by  side  with  this  change  was  to  be 
noted  a  revival  of  the  ideal  of  Louis  XIV,  to  establish  the  Ocean, 
the  Rhine,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees  as  the  boundaries  of  their 
beloved  France.  To  attain  this  result,  several  annexations  of 
territory  must  be  effected,  and  with  such  ambitions  coming  to 
the  front,  the  European  struggle  became  a  war  of  aggression. 

This  change  was  appreciated  in  England,  which  a  century  Attitude 
and  more  before  had  championed  the  cause  of  its  weaker  con- 
tinental neighbors  against  the  aggressive  poUcies  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  occupation  of  Belgium  in  1793  and  especially  the  possession 
of  the  city  of  Antwerp  brought  the  power  of  France  to  the  very 
doors  of  England.  The  occupation  of  Antwerp,  they  declared, 
was  equivalent  to  pointing  a  loaded  pistol  "at  the  heart  of 
England."  To  anticipate  any  designs  which  France  might 
have  upon  England  itself,  the  younger  Pitt,  who  was  then 
prime  minister,  undertook  to  form  a  continental  coalition 
against  France.  In  this  he  succeeded  so  well  that  by  April, 
1793,  three  powers,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  England,  had  pledged 
each  other  to  wage  a  war  of  extermination  upon  France,  and 
each  was  to  seek  its  reward  in  a  portion  of  French  territory. 
Thus  the  struggle  for  territory  on   the  part  of  France  \vas 


and  Fears 
of  England 


The  First 
Coalition 


140     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Government: 
Danton 


matched  by  a  corresponding  defensive  struggle  on  the  part  of 
her  adversaries. 

65.  Dictatorship  of  Robespierre  and  his  Overthrow.  —  With 
this  change  of  fortune  upon  the  frontier  and  the  gradual  restora- 
Factions  in  the  tion  of  Order  within,  went  changes  in  the  government.  Danton, 
who  more  than  any  other  single  person  had  been  responsible  for 
the  radical  measures  which  had  been  adopted  in  this  crisis  and 
who  had  from  the  very  beginning  looked  upon  these  arrange- 
ments as  merely  temporary  in  character,  now  expected  that  the 
attainment  of  a  semblance  of  order  at  home  and  of  victory 
abroad  would  be  followed  by  more  moderate  counsels.  He  had 
seized  upon  an  extreme  remedy  to  meet  a  desperate  situation. 
He  was  not  a  member  of  the  Committee;  in  fact  he  had  refused 
to  accept  a  position  upon  it,  but  his  influence  with  its  members 
was  fully  as  great  as  though  he  had  been  one  of  their  number. 
He  found  many  supporters  in  the  position  which  he  now  took, 
that  the  time  was  ripe  for  less  strenuous  measures.  The  methods 
which  the  government  had  employed  —  the  arrests,  the  hurried 
trials,  and  the  speedy  execution  of  the  enemies  of  the  state  — 
had  encouraged  the  more  radical  elements  in  the  Convention 
and  in  the  Committee  to  demand  measures  of  a  more  blood- 
thirsty character.  These  they  urged  under  the  guise  of  a  pa- 
triotism which  did  not  always  harmonize  with  their  real 
sentiments.  Hebert  was  the  leader  of  this  faction,  which  had 
its  representatives  among  the  officials  of  the  Paris  Commune. 
For  a  time  the  Hebertists,  as  they  were  called,  shaped  to  a 
certain  extent  the  course  of  events  both  in  the  capital  and  in 
parts  of  the  provinces. 

Between  these  two  rival  factions  stood  Robespierre.  Robes- 
pierre has  been  called  one  of  the  enigmas  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  various  diverse  opinions  of  his  motives  and  conduct 
have  been  expressed  by  historians.  He  was  of  the  puritan 
type,  honest  and  sincere,  but  saturated  through  and  through 
with  the  ideas  of  Rousseau.  His  purpose  seems  to  have  been  to 
piy:  these  ideas  into  practice  and  to  remodel  France  along  dem- 


Hebert 


Robespierre 
and  his  Ideas 


and  Weak 
Points 


THE  FRENCH   REPUBLIC  141 

ocratic  and  rationalistic  lines.  His  one  thought  was  to  purify 
the  country,  —  to  apply  the  same  sort  of  a  process  which  the  gold 
refiner  apphes  as  he  strives  to  separate  the  pure  metal  from  the 
dross.  He  did  not  hesitate,  therefore,  to  employ  any  means 
which  in  his  mind  would  further  by  ever  so  little  the  attain- 
ment of  his  end.  SimpHcity  of  life,  simplicity  of  governmental 
organization,  a  return  to  nature  a  la  Rousseau,  were  the  essence 
of  his  state-craft.  He  had  for  some  time  past  borne  the  sur-  His  strong 
name  of  ''The  Incorruptible,"  such  was  his  reputation  for 
honesty.  He  could  not  be  charged  with  profiting  in  a  mer- 
cenary way  by  the  power  which  he  wielded.  His  great  weak- 
ness seems  to  have  been  his  love  of  popular  applause.  He 
was  always  willing  to  act  as  the  spokesman  of  the  Committee, 
and  in  this  way  came  to  be  the  best  known  of  its  members. 
This  failing  may  explain  the  prominence  which  he  enjoyed  and 
the  habit  which  the  people  formed  of  attributing  to  him,  and  to 
him  alone,  measures  with  which  he  probably  had  little  to  do. 

The  Hebertists  and  Dantonists,  as  the  friends  of  Danton  were  The  HSbertists 
called,  both  stood  in  the  way  of  the  attainment  of  Robespierre's  *°**  S^R^lson 
ideals.  It  was  only  for  a  brief  interval  that  the  Hebertists, 
working  through  the  Paris  Commune,  had  the  upper  hand.  The 
church  was  the  special  object  of  their  attack.  They  closed  the 
churches,  stilled  all  the  church  bells  as  undemocratic,  repudiated 
and  rejected  Christianity,  and  in  its  place  instituted  the  Worship 
of  Reason.  On  November  10,  1793,  the  city  of  Paris  celebrated 
amid  great  rejoicing  the  inauguration  of  the  new  cult  by  a  great 
procession  and  a  service  in  Notre  Dame  at  which  an  opera 
dancer  was  solemnly  installed  upon  the  high  altar  as  the  personi- 
fication of  the  Goddess  of  Reason.  The  "  service"  degenerated 
into  a  veritable  orgy  and  shocked  the  great  masses  of  people, 
who  revolted  at  such  a  travesty  upon  religion. 

Robespierre,  with  the  support  of  the  Convention,  was  soon   Overthrow  of 
able  to  undermine  the  influence  of  Hebert  and  his  friends,  and 
they  were  brought  before  the  Tribunal  and  condemned   to 
death  as  enemies  of  the  state.    Their  influence  in  the  Paris 


Hebertists 


142     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Overthrow 
of  Danton 
and  his 
Followers 


Robespierre 
as  Dictator 


Fall  of 
Robespierre 


Commune  was  also  broken.  The  government  of  the  city  was 
now  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  friends  of  Robespierre,  who  was 
no  less  hostile  to  Danton  and  the  ideas  which  he  represented. 
It  was  a  more  difficult  matter  to  compass  the  downfall  of  the 
Great  Commoner.  The  unexpected  happened,  however,  and 
Danton,  who  had  labored  so  long  and  so  zealously  in  the  interests 
of  his  country,  gave  up  his  life  with  several  of  his  friends,  as  so 
many  others  had  done,  to  purify  France  and  to  launch  it  upon  its 
new  future. 

Robespierre  was  now  the  undisputed  master.  A  desire  to 
dictate  the  course  of  the  Revolution  rather  than  the  mere  love  of 
power  seems  to  have  shaped  his  actions.  One  of  his  first  steps 
was  to  establish  by  a  decree  of  the  Convention  the  worship  of 
the  Supreme  Being,  as  a  protest  against  the  atheism  of  the 
Hebertists.  Robespierre  was  convinced  that  in  order  to  be 
permanent  a  state  must  be  grounded  in  religion,  but,  like  Voltaire 
and  Rousseau,  he  rejected  the  established  church  as  narrow  and 
bigoted  and  hostile  to  the  reign  of  virtue  which  he  was  striving  to 
inaugurate.  The  number  of  victims  claimed  by  the  guillotine 
increased  rather  than  diminished  in  the  pursuit  of  his  aims, 
and  such  was  his  command  over  the  Committee  and  the  Con- 
vention that  he  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  by  the  Convention 
which  provided  that  any  of  its  members  could  be  tried  and 
condemned  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  without  their  action 
or  approval.  All  that  the  Tribunal  required  to  rid  the  country 
of  any  one  objectionable  to  Robespierre  or  his  associates  was 
**  moral  proof."  The  accused  was  deprived  both  of  witnesses 
and  defenders;  in  other  words  this  law  legalized  assassination. 

This  act  more  than  any  other  precipitated  his  downfall.  No 
one  knew  where  the  blow  was  likely  to  fall,  and  there  were  many 
men  in  the  Convention  who  were  well  aware  that  their  patriotism 
would  not  bear  careful  scrutiny  or  investigation.  A  conspiracy 
was  formed  and  a  decree  was  passed  by  the  Convention  accusing 
Robespierre  of  trying  to  play  the  r61e  of  another  Cromwell.  He 
was  rescued  by  his  friends  and  adherents,  however,  before  he 


THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC 


143 


could  be  brought  before  the  Tribunal  for  trial,  and  for  the 
moment  Paris  was  on  the  verge  of  a  bloody  struggle  for  suprem- 
acy between  the  Convention  and  the  Robespierrists.  Robes- 
pierre hesitated,  however,  to  precipitate  an  open  insurrection. 
The  slight  resistance  offered  by  his  immediate  followers  was 


KOBESPIEKRE  ARRESTED   BY  OrDER  OF  THE   CONVENTION 

speedily  broken  down,  and  he  was  hurried  off  to  the  guillotine, 
where  he,  too,  paid  the  penalty  for  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of 
Revolution.  With  his  death  the  Terror  may  be  said  to  have 
come  to  an  end.  That  he  furnished  the  inspiration  of  many  of 
its  bloodiest  acts  is  shown  by  the  death-toll  of  1376  persons 
from  the  enactment  of  the  law  on  the  loth  of  June  to  his  fall  on 
July  27,  1794.  One  hundred  and  fifty  persons  were  executed  in 
the  two  days  of  the  8th  and  9th  of  July  alone.  The  trials  and 
executions  did  not  entirely  cease  with  his  death,  as  might  have 


End  of 
the  Terror 


144    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Discontent 


Constitution 
of  Year  m 


Napoleon 
and  the  Attack 
upon  the 
Convention 


been  expected.  The  months  that  followed  were  marked  by 
reactionary  measures  in  which  the  promoters  of  the  bloodshed 
of  the  preceding  months  expiated  in  their  turn  upon  the  guillo- 
tine their  crime  of  having  exhibited  too  great  a  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  the  Revolution. 

66.  The  Reestablishment  of  Constitutional  Government.  — 
The  interval  between  Robespierre's  downfall  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Directory  was  one  of  great  uncertainty.  Royalist 
movements  threatened  to  sweep  away  all  the  results  which  had 
thus  far  been  attained  at  so  great  a  cost  of  blood  and  treasure. 
The  abolition  of  the  Law  of  the  Maximum  and  a  scarcity  of  food 
bred  discontent  among  the  masses,  and  this  expressed  itself 
in  insurrectionary  movements.  The  Convention,  however, 
remained  true  to  its  republican  principles  and  maintained  in 
all  its  essential  features  the  system  which  had  replaced  the  ancien 
regime.  Its  members,  recognizing  the  weaknesses  and  inade- 
quacy of  the  Constitution  of  the  Year  I,  applied  themselves  to 
the  work  of  framing  a  new  government  which  should  preserve 
all  that  was  best  of  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  Revolution, 
and,  in  spite  of  obstacles  within  the  assembly  and  adverse 
sentiment  without,  gave  to  the  country  for  its  ratification  the 
Constitution  of  the  Year  III. 

The  proposed  government  was  again  based  upon  a  property 
qualification  —  which  had  been  abolished  in  1792 — and  in 
consequence  there  was  great  disssatisfaction  with  these  pro- 
visions among  the  masses.  The  Convention  sought  to  prevent 
the  return  to  power  of  the  royalists  by  a  decree  requiring  that 
two  thirds  of  the  newly  elected  deputies  should  be  chosen 
from  their  own  number.  A  strong  executive  was  provided  for 
in  the  arrangement  for  five  directors  to  be  chosen  by  the  legis- 
lature. The  result  was  a  vigorous  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
royalists  to  overthrow  the  constitution  and  disband  the  Con- 
vention. This  was  frustrated  by  a  force  of  four  thousand  men 
under  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  young  man  of  26,  who  held  at 
bay  and  dispersed  four  times  that  number  on  Oct.  5,  1795. 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  '  145 

Three  weeks  later  the  Convention  declared  its  work  finished 
and  dispersed  with  the  cry,  "Long  live  the  RepubUc!" 

France  owed  much  to  this  body  of  earnest  men,  who  now  Achievement* 
adjourned  to  make  way  for  the  new  government.  From  its  ron^enti  n 
membership  had  been  selected  the  great  Committee  of  Public 
Safety.  Without  their  support,  however,  much  of  the  work  of 
the  Committee  would  have  failed.  The  Committee  was  their 
creation,  their  agent,  carrying  out  measures  for  which  they  made 
themselves  responsible.  Within  the  short  period  of  its  existence  The 
the  Convention  had  given  France  a  new  system  of  weights  and  ^d^^Cafe^i^M* 
measures,  —  the  metric  system  of  today  —  had  put  into  opera- 
tion a  new  calendar,  known  as  the  revolutionary  calendar,  which 
was  later  repudiated;  had  laid  the  foundations  of  the  present 
French  educational  system;  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  codi- 
fication and  simplification  of  the  law  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte  a 
few  years  later.  There  was  no  problem  too  difficult  for  their 
intelligence.  Thus  we  find  them  striving  to  bring  order  out  of 
the  tangled  finances  and  blazing  the  way  for  the  financiers  of 
today.  Their  greatest  achievement  was  undoubtedly  the 
preservation  of  their  country  in  its  hour  of  danger.  To  them 
rather  than  to  the  Great  Committee  alone  should  be  given  the 
credit  for  bringing  France  safely  through  one  of  the  darkest 
hours  in  her  history. 

Already  treaties  of  peace  had  been  signed  with  Holland,  Peace 
Prussia,  and  Spain  (the  Treaty  of  the  Hague  and  the  Trea-  pr„ssia*! 
ties  of  Basel).    This  meant  the  breaking  up  of  the  coaUtion  and  Spain 
formed  by  England  in  1793.     By  the  terms  of  these  agree- 
ments the  Rhine   and  the  Pyrenees  were  recognized  as  the 
frontiers  of  France,  thereby  estabHshing  the  principle  for  which 
Louis  XIV  had   contended  a  century  before.     Belgium  was 
thus  recognized  as  French  territory.     England  and   Austria 
were  still  factors  to  be  reckoned  with,  but  the  attention  of  the 
latter  at  this  time  was  drawn  to  the  dismemberment  of  Po- 
land, and  for  the  moment  Austria  exerted  little  pressure  upon 
France  itself. 


146     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

67.  The  Dismemberment  of  Poland.  —  This  period  wit- 
nessed the  final  act  in  one  of  the  most  disgraceful  episodes 
which  history  records,  the  extinction  of  Polish  nationality  by 
the  division  of  Polish  territory  among  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria.  It  was  not  only  Poland's  misfortune  to  stand  in  the 
path  of .  their  ambitions  but  to  show  lamentable  weakness  in 
the  face  of  the  danger  which  threatened  the  country.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  the  designs  of  Russia  upon  this  great 
land  mass  in  the  days  of  Peter  the  Great.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  how  the  efforts  to  carry  out  their  fell  purpose  helped  to 
determine  the  attitude  of  these  European  states  towards  the 
overthrow  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  first  partition  of 
Poland,  which  was  based  upon  a  treaty,  was  consummated  in 
1772;  the  second  in  1793;  and  the  final  partition  in  1795.  A 
glance  at  the  map  (opposite  page  178)  will  serve  to  indicate  just 
how  far  each  nation  profited  thereby.  Russia  perhaps  secured 
the  lion's  share.  Thus  within  the  brief  period  which  had  elapsed 
since  the  fateful  year  1789,  important  territorial  changes  had 
taken  place  not  alone  in  western  Europe  but  in  the  east  as  well. 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER   STUDY 

I.  Distinguish  between  the  peaceful  and  the  violent  stages  of  the  French 
Revolution.  2.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  flight  to  Varennes  upoit  the 
country  at  large?  3.  Give  a  brief  characterization  of  each  of  the  leaders  of 
the  new  republican  party.  4.  Compare  the  Champ  de  Mars  with  the  Boston 
Massacre.  5.  Distinguish  between  the  National  and  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  6.  Describe  some  of  the  French  newspapers  of  the  time.  7. 
Contrast  the  views  of  the  Jacobins  and  the  Girondists.  8.  How  did  the 
Assembly  lose  the  confidence  of  the  common  people?  9.  Comment  upon 
the  terms  "Madame  Veto"  and  "sanscuUotes."  10.  What  was  the  origin 
of  the  "Marseillaise"?  11.  How  did  the  Convention  propose  to  revolu- 
tionize Europe?  12.  Compare  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI  with  that  of 
Charles  I  of  England  in  respect  to  legahty  of  procedure  and  justification. 
13.  Compare  the  situation  in  Europe  in  March,  1793,  with  that  of  August, 
1914.  14.  Comment  upon  these  terms:  "guillotine,"  "reign  of  terror," 
"  revolutionary  tribunal,"  "  Committee  of  Public  Safety,"  "  law  of  suspects," 
"the  Mountain."  15.  Give  an  account  of  the  rise,  policy,  and  downfall  of 
Robespierre.     16.  Give  an  account  of  the  three  partitions  of  Poland. 


THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC  147 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  Characters  of  the  French  Revolution.    Second  Part. 

1.  Marat.     Belloc,  French  Revolution,  pp.  76-8.     Mallet,  French 

Revolution,  pp.  109-11.  Johnston,  The  French  Revolu- 
tion, pp.  106-7,  188-9.  Mathews,  The  French  Revolution, 
pp.  144-6,  209-10. 

2.  Danton.      Belloc,   pp.    70-4.     Johnston,    pp.    120-4,    144-56, 
'  i7i-7»   186-8,   202-8.     Mallet,  pp.    175-8,  238-40,  247-8. 

Mathews,  pp.  185-6.  Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  492-3- 

3.  Camot.     Belloc,  pp.  74-6.     Mallet,  pp.  147-9,  248-60. 

4.  Robespierre.     Belloc,  pp.  79-85.     Mallet,  pp.  147-9,   248-60. 

Johnston,  pp.  202-21.  Plunket,  Fall  of  the  Old  Order, 
pp.  111-8.    Mathews,  pp.  186-7,  252-65.     Hayes,  VoL  I, 

P-  493- 

5.  Hebert.     Mallet,  p.  231.     Johnston,  pp.  180-1,  190-7,  202-7. 

6.  Saint-Just.     Mallet,  pp.  245-6.     Johnston,  pp.  205-21. 

7.  Sieyes.    Mallet,  p.  102.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of 

Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  229-30. 

8.  Dumouriez.     Belloc,    pp.    67-9.      Mallet,   pp.    167-71,    180-1, 

194-5- 
II.  The  Decline  of  the  Monarchy. 

Johnston,  pp.   105-69.      Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.   I,  pp.  249-64. 
Mallet,  pp.  98-177.      Belloc,  pp.  107-30.    Morris,  The  French 
Revolution,  pp.  36-74.    Rose,  The  Revolutionary  and  Napo- 
leonic Era,  pp.  43-72.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  499-503. 
III.  The  Convention  and  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

Johnston,  pp.  170-238.  Belloc,  pp.  123-45.  Morris,  pp.  75-142. 
Rose,  pp.  71-92.  Mallet,  pp.  182-260.  Gardiner,  The  French 
Revolution,  pp.  156-220.  Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe, 
pp.  124-47.  Plunket,  pp.  103-20.  Jeffery,  New  Europe,  pp. 
22-32.     Mathews,  pp.  22^-33.     Hayes,  Vol.  I,  pp.  502-12. 

Source  Studies 

1.  The  flight  of  the  king  to  Varennes.     Fling,  Source  Problems  on  the 

French  Revolution,  pp.  251-325.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  278-80. 

2.  Marat  attacks  the  royalists.    Ibid.,  pp.  281-2. 

3.  The  Declaration  of  Pillnitz.    Ibid.,  pp.  282-3. 

4.  Opinion  of  a  royalist  on  the  work  of  the  Assembly.    Ibid.,  pp.  283-5. 

5.  Origin  of  the  Jacobin  club.    Ibid.,  pp.  285-7.    Library  of  Original 

Sources.     Volume  VII,  pp.  428-30. 

6.  Letter  of  Louis  XVI  to  the  King  of  Prussia.    Ibid.,  pp.  287-8. 

7.  French  Assembly  declares  war  on  Austria.    Ibid.,  pp.  289-90. 

8.  Decree  against  the  non-juring  clergy.    Ibid.,  pp.  291-2. 


148     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

9.  Proclamation  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick.    Ihid.,  pp.  292-4. 

10.  Debate  during  the  first  session  of  the  Convention.     Ihid.,  295-8. 

11.  Proclamation  of  the  Convention  to  the  nations,  1792.     Ibid.,  pp.  298-9. 

12.  Views  of  Saint- Just.    Ihid.,  pp.  300-2. 

13.  Views  of  Desmoulins.     /6i</.,  pp.  303-8. 

14.  Extracts  from  Burke's  views  on  the  French  Revolution.     Chejoiey, 

Readings,  pp.  647-50. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  Show  the  changes  in  central  Europe  produced  by  the  French 
Revolution.  2,  On  an  outline  map  of  Europe  show  the  countries  with 
which  the  French  Republic  was  at  war.  3.  Show  the  ecclesiastical  divi- 
sions of  France,  1 789-1802. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Typical  German  states  before  and 
since  the  French  Revolution,  p.  142.  Ecclesiastical  Map  of  France,  1789- 
1802,  p.  148. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  Germany  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  p.  22. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  Middle  Eastern  Europe, 
1795,  p.  22. 

Gardiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  The  Austrian  Nether- 
lands, 1792,  p.  52. 

Bibliography 

The  bibliography  for  this  chapter  is  identical  with  that  of  Chapter  IV, 
omitting  Lowell  and  Seignobos. 

Cheyney.     Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 

68.  The  Government  and  the  Army  in  1795.  —  With  the 
ratification  of  the  new  government,  known  as  the  Directory, 
and  the  signing  of  the  Treaties  of  Basel  and  the  Hague,  it  might 
have  been  expected  that  normal  conditions  would  once  more 
prevail  in  France.  The  government,  though  republican  in  form, 
also  partook  largely  of  the  character  of  an  oligarchy,  as  great 
power  had  been  conferred  upon  the  five  men  who  were  at  the 
head  of  affairs.  However  admirable  this  form  of  government  Weaknesses 
may  have  appeared  upon  paper,  in  practice  it  soon  proved  Jjj,^^ 
itself  wofully  inefficient  and  incompetent.  By  this  time  the 
French  people  were  beginning  to  weary  of  so  many  changes  in 
such  rapid  succession,  with  all  the  uncertainty  and  disorder 
with  which  they  were  accompanied.  When  the  control  over 
the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  passed  into  the  hands  of  Robes- 
pierre, it  had  looked  for  the  moment  as  though  the  Bourbon 
system  was  about  to  be  reestablished,  but  with  this  difference, 
that  the  supreme  control  was  vested  in  a  disciple  of  Rousseau 
rather  than  in  a  representative  of  the  ancien.  regime.  The 
career  of  Robespierre  had  demonstrated  how  easy  it  was  for  a 
single  individual  with  a  well-defined  purpose  and  possessed  of 
a  moderate  amount  of  political  genius,  to  absorb  into  his  own 
hands  all  the  powers  of  the  government. 

The  great  task  which  the  French  people  had  set  themselves 
of  restoring  their  country  by  force  of  arms  to  its  former  posi- 
tion of  grandeur  and  power  among  the  nations  of  Europe 
offered  a  golden  opportunity  to  the  successful  military  leader  for 
playing  at  the  same  time  an  equally  successful  pohtical  role. 


150     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Influence 
of  the  Army 


Carnot  had  built  up  a  splendid  military  machine.  The  royal 
aristocratic  army  of  the  Bourbons  was  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Promotions  were  now  made  on  merit  for  services  actually  ren- 
dered, and  the  private  with  ability  might  soon  find  himself  at  the 
head  of  great  armies.  It  was  essentially  the  day  of  the  young 
man.  Youthful  enthusiasm  combined  with  ability  soon  won 
both  recognition  and  promotion.  Among  the  generals  who  had 
already  won  reputations  upon  the  battlefield,  there  was  scarcely 
a  man  over  forty.  The  more  disturbed  and  uncertain  the  future, 
the  greater  the  demand  for  successful  military  leaders,  and  the 
easier  it  was  for  some  one  of  these  to  make  himself  the  poHtical 
master.  Caesar  had  become  emperor,  and  Cromwell  had  been 
named  Protector  under  similar  circumstances;  our  own  Wash- 
ington was  urged  to  accept  the  crown  as  ruler  of  these  United 
States.  Events  were  now  shaping  themselves  in  France  towards 
the  same  end,  and  the  man  who  was  to  profit  thereby  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  Directory  gave  him  his  opportunity. 
^  69.  Training  and  Personality  of  Bonaparte.  —  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  a  French  subject  born  on  the  island  of  Corsica 
in  1769.  He  just  escaped  being  born  a  citizen  of  the  Genoese 
republic,  as  Corsica  had  been  annexed  to  France  only  the  year 
before.  By  nationality,  therefore,  he  was  not  a  Frenchman 
but  an  Italian,  and  throughout  his  entire  career  showed  many 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  people  of  that  peninsula.  His  was 
not  an  imposing  figure;  he  was  too  short,  his  head  was  much 
too  large  for  his  body,  and  he  stood  with  legs  stretched  far  apart. 
All  in  all,  physically  he  was  a  rather  insignificant  specimen  of  hu- 
manity. It  was  his  face  and  eyes,  the  carriage  of  the  head,  the 
Characteristics  high  forehead,  the  aquiline  nose,  and  the  features  which  seemed 
chiselled  in  marble  that  impressed  the  beholder.  There  was 
about  the  man  such  an  air  of  quiet  determination,  such  an  at- 
mosphere of  pent-up  activity,  as  marked  him  for  a  natural  leader 
among  his  feUows.  He  was  a  marvel  of  energy  and  had  a  capacity 
for  hard  work  and  for  long  hours  possessed  by  few.  It  is  said 
that  he  seldom  slept  for  more  than  five  hours  out  of  the  twenty- 


Nationality 


THE*  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


151 


V  .•■.■•:---^?  ■*■;/*: 

i 

'    ',■;  1 

■^ 

'tn 

'  ■  •  j 

i_ 

1  :- 

mw^ 

-^:mm'%  ^ 

'Hi 

c_  H 

'$!■ 

i^^^H 

^^^;^^H 

^^^^1 

fl 

kvjf               ^^a^3B 

»-^ 

11 

.'  JjB 

^S^t' 

II 

0^^^ 

'  '■ 

&■ 

Xx:;;^^^^^^ 

m..-            ■^li^r' 

^ 

n^ 

■fc*-.,. 

.  -''"^-^*MlHi3H| 

HUH"  ^-. 

%! 

E  .  i-  -^  g/  j  f  .1 ,' 

§gm 

Napoleon  I 
Napoleon  the  Great,  Emperor  of  the  French,  m  his  coronation  robes. 


52     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Education 


At  Toulon 


Relations 
with  the 
Convention 


Bonaparte 
and  the 
Revolution 


four  and  that  he  would  often  rise  in  the  middle  of  the  night  and 
summon  his  secretaries  about  him.  He  was  a  master  of  detail, 
readily  singling  out  the  essentials  from  the  non-essentials.  He 
was  a  strange  combination  of  dreamer  and  practical  man  of 
affairs;  he  would  build  what  appeared  to  be  the  wildest  castles  in 
the  air  and  then  deliberately  proceed  to  realize  them.  At  the  age 
of  ten  he  was  sent  over  to  France  to  be  educated  in  the  mihtary 
school  of  Brienne,  where  he  showed  a  very  unsocial  spirit  in  his 
contact  with  his  comrades,  but  displayed  a  special  aptitude  for 
mathematics  —  a  clear  indication  of  the  natural  bent  of  his 
mind.  After  he  had  completed  his  course  he  was  appointed  to 
the  artillery  branch  of  the  service  and  first  won  recognition  at 
the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793.  The  EngHsh  fleet  had  been  admitted 
to  the  harbor  by  traitors  within  the  city,  and  backed  by  the 
forces  within  the  city  they  were  holding  out  against  the  armies 
of  the  Convention.  Bonaparte  saw  the  weak  point  in  the 
city's  defences  and,  by  planting  a  battery  upon  one  of  the 
hills  commanding  the  harbor,  forced  the  English  fleet  to  retire. 
He  also  earned  the  gratitude  of  the  Convention  by  dispers- 
ing the  forces  which  were  launched  against  it  on  October 
4-5,  1795.  I^  short,  his  services  had  been  such  as  to  augur 
well  for  his  future  success  as  a  military  leader,  but  he  had  not 
as  yet  attracted  general  attention,  nor  was  he  in  any  sense  a 
political  figure. 

Bonaparte  had  not  shown  himself  particularly  interested  or 
active  in  the  dramatic  changes  which  marked  the  early  days  of 
the  Revolution.  He  had  preferred  to  watch  and  wait,  biding  the 
time  when  his  talents  might  find  their  proper  field  of  expression. 
Between  1784  and  1789  he  had  read  widely,  devouring  the 
works  of  the  philosophers  and  reformers  and  accepting  many 
of  their  principles  as  a  part  of  his  political  creed.  He  sympa- 
thized but  little,  however,  with  the  aspirations  or  demands  of 
the  masses,  or  with  those  leaders  who  catered  to  their  interests. 
He  believed  in  law  and  order  and  in  system,  leaning  in  his  politi- 
cal opinions  toward  the  views  of  the  middle  classes. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


Bonaparte  at  Toulon 

Bonaparte  is  represented  as  charging  impetuously  up  the  heights  back  of 
Toulon  on  which  the  British  were  stationed  and  driving  them  ignominiously 
from  the  field.  In  this  action  he  was  wounded  in  the  leg  by  a  British  bayonet, 
as  shown  in  the  picture.  He  called  this  wound  his  "Baptism  of  Blood." 
Note  the  uniforms  of  the  soldiers. 


154     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Marriage  70.  Bonapaite  in  Italy :  Campaign  of  1796-7.  —  His  marriage 

with  Josephine  .^  ^^^^  ^j^j^  Joscphinc  de  Beauharnais,  a  beautiful  Creole  of 
the  island  of  Martinique  and  the  widow  of  one  of  the  victims  of 
the  Terror,  secured  for  him  the  favor  of  Barras,  one  of  the  most 
influential  of  the  Directors,  and  contributed  not  a  little  to  his 
appointment  in  1796  as  general  of  the  Army  of  Italy.  The 
Directory  was  now  planning  a  decisive  blow  at  Austria  and 
Sardinia,  who  had  joined  forces  against  France  and  were  still 
hostile  to  the  Republic.  The  Directors,  acting  in  part  upon 
the  advice  of  Bonaparte,  planned  to  attack  Austria  both  in 
Appointment  Germany  and  in  Italy,  and  in  the  spring  of  1796  Bonaparte 
*fit^^^™^  took  command  of  the  motley  force  known  as  the  Army  of 
Italy  —  a  command  which,  in  the  words  of  a  contemporary, 
was  "to  open  for  him  the  doors  of  immortality."  Crossing 
the  Apennines,  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  strategy  he  quickly 
prevented  the  Austrians  and  Sardinians  from  joining  forces 
upon  the  plains  of  Lombardy.  Defeating  each  in  turn,  he 
Peace  of  soon  forced  his  enemies  to  sign  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio, 

Campo  Formio  ^^  which  Austria  recognized  the  Ligurian  and  Cisalpine  re- 
pubHcs  which  Bonaparte  had  created  and  renounced  her  claims 
upon  Belgium  and  the  lands  lying  west  of  the  Rhine  to 
France.  As  partial  compensation  for  these  losses,  the  terri- 
tory of  the  recently  conquered  Venetian  Republic  was  ceded 
to  Austria. 
This  campaign  established  Bonaparte's  reputation  as  a  great 
.^  miHtary  leader.    He  had  taken  a  small,  ragged,  ill-equipped 

Military  genius  force  of  37,ooo  men  and  by  brilliant  manoeuvres  had  destroyed 
o  onaparte  ^^q^  their  own  ground  five  Austrian  armies,  not  one  of  which 
numbered  less  than  45,000  men  and  which  were  commanded  by 
some  of  the  best  generals  in  Europe.  This  campaign  —  a 
Series  of  moves  consisting  of  18  battles  and  65  skirmishes  —  is 
justly  accounted  "  one  of  the  classic  pieces  of  the  miHtary  art," 
and  is  therefore  worthy  of  careful  study. 

Bonaparte  had  done  more,  however,  than  to  secure  for  himself 
a  military  reputation.     He  had  come  down  into  northern  Italy 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


^53 


The  Young  Bonaparte 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  is  here  represented  as  quelling  an  insurrection 
in  Paris  under  the  Directory. 


56     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Bonaparte 
as  the 
Champion 
of  Liberty 


Creation  of 
Republics 


Bonaparte's 
Opportunity 


posing  as  the  champion  of  these  peoples  who  were  staggering 
under  the  yoke  of  Austria,  proclaiming  as  his  real  purpose  the 
restoration  of  all  Italy  to  its  former  position  of  glory  and  honor 
among  the  nations.  Divided  as  the  land  was  into  small  states 
and  principahties,  with  an  outsider,  Austria,  dominating  every- 
thing and  stifling  every  effort  towards  union  and  independence, 
the  message  which  he  brought  fell  upon  receptive  ears  and 
aroused  the  greatest  hopes  and  expectations  among  all  Italian  pa- 
triots. The  creation  of  the  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  republics  out 
of  a  portion  of  the  captured  territories  was  a  sort  of  pledge  of 
what  they  might  expect  in  the  future,  and  the  Italian  people  saw 
in  this  step  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  for  a  land  which  had  so  long 
served  merely  as  a  great  battleground  for  the  rest  of  Europe. 

But  Bonaparte  had  accomplished  even  more.  From  this 
time  forward  the  French  people  began  to  look  to  him  as  the 
coming  leader  about  whom  they  could  rally  in  a  crisis.  It  was 
not  alone  his  conduct  of  the  campaign,  but  his  administration 
of  the  conquered  country,  which  marked  him  as  a  man  of  great 
ability.  He  now  began  to  voice  the  ambition  which  stimulated 
him  to  action.  He  had  already  fixed  his  eye  upon  the  distant 
goal.  "  Do  you  think, "  he  said  in  conversation  with  some  of  his 
intimate  friends,  "that  I  triumph  in  Italy  to  make  the  greatness 
of  the  lawyers  of  the  Directory?"  Throughout  all  these  under- 
takings in  Italy  he  constantly  kept  his  finger  upon  the  pulse  of 
France,  realizing  that  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when  he 
would  be  called  upon  to  declare  his  real  purpose,  but  knowing 
full  well,  to  quote  his  own  words,  that  the  "pear  was  not  yet 
ripe."  He  still  posed  as  a  champion  and  as  a  supporter  of  the 
existing  order  in  France  and  despatched  one  of  his  subordinates 
to  Paris  in  September,  1797,  when  royalist  movements  threat- 
ened the  overthrow  of  the  Directory. 

71.  Bonaparte  in  Egypt.  —  There  was  only  one  nation  still 
in  arms  against  France.  That  was  England.  When  Bonaparte 
laid  down  his  command  in  Italy  and  was  ready  to  return  to 
France  he  found  himself  in  a  rather  embarrassing  position.    No 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


157 


sufl5cient  pretext  was  at  hand  for  another  change  in  the  gov- 
ernment, and  any  one  who  attempted  such  a  move  was  fore- 
doomed to  failure.  The  Directors,  while  they  feared  Bonaparte, 
did  not  know  how  to  safeguard  themselves  against  him  or  what 
to  do  with  him.  They  therefore  welcomed  Jiis  proposal  that  he 
be  intrusted  with  a  force  which  should  deliver  a  teUing  blow  at 
England's  power  in  the  Mediterranean.     Such  an  expedition 


Bonaparte  in  I^gypt 

The  figure  of  Bonaparte  is  seen  plodding  resolutely  on  ahead  of  his  troops 
over  the  sands  of  Egypt  in  the  Egyptian  campaign. 

fitted  in  well  with  Bonaparte's  schemes.  Not  only  did  the  proj- 
ect open  up  great  possibilities  in  the  acquisition  of  additional 
honor  and  glory,  but  it  afforded  him  a  pretext  for  absenting 
himself  for  the  time  being  from  affairs  at  the  capital.  He  was 
undoubtedly  fascinated  by  the  idea  of  repeating  Alexander's 
exploits  in  the  East.  He  proposed  to  land  a  force  in  Egypt  and, 
having  won  a  foothold  there,  to  strike  at  England's  supremacy  in 
India.  If  all  went  well  he  might  carve  out  for  himself  a  great 
eastern  empire  which  should  rival  that  of  the  great  Macedonian. 
He  accordingly  set  sail  with  a  large  fleet  and  a  picked  force  of 
35,000    soldiers,   and,   landing   at  Alexandria,  soon   occupied 


Alms  of 
Bonaparte 


158     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Zurich,  1799 


Bonaparte's 
Return 


Cairo,  fighting  several  battles  with  the  Mamelukes,  who  were 
the  real  rulers  of  the  land.  One  of  these  was  fought  within  the 
shadow  of  the  Pyramids.  "Forty  centuries  are  looking  down 
upon  you,"  was  his  exhortation  to  his  soldiers  as  he  drew  them 
up  in  battle  order.  -The  first  setback  to  the  expedition  was  the 
loss  of  the  fleet.  The  English  government,  realizing  the  danger 
that  threatened  its  power  in  the  Mediterranean  and  possibly 
in  India,  had  ordered  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Nelson  to  in- 
tercept the  French  expedition.  Nelson  failed  in  this,  but  the 
first  day  of  August,  1798,  he  finally  came  upon  the  French  fleet 
at  anchor  in  Aboukir  Bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile.  By  a  series 
of  manoeuvres  he  placed  the  French  ships  at  the  disadvantage 
of  being  outnumbered  two  to  one,  and  in  the  battle  which  fol- 
lowed he  destroyed  all  but  four  vessels.  Two  of  these  were 
ships  of  the  line  and  the  others  frigates.  The  Battle  of  the 
Nile,  or  of  Aboukir  Bay,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  bottled  up  the 
French  army  in  Egypt,  cutting  off  entirely  Bonaparte's  com- 
munications with  France.  Nothing  daunted,  he  invaded  Syria, 
and  upon  ground  made  famous  by  the  crusaders  centuries  be- 
fore won  several  battles,  but  was  repulsed  at  Acre  and  forced 
to  retire  into  Egypt  again.  He  showed  remarkable  skill  in 
handling  his  now  weakened  forces  and  won  a  great  name  for 
himself  among  the  Turks. 

Soon  after  his  return  to  Egypt  he  learned  from  some  English 
newspapers  which  fell  into  his  hands  that  matters  were  pro- 
gressing unfavorably  at  home;  that  war  had  broken  out  again 
between  France  and  Austria;  and  that  all  his  Italian  conquests 
had  been  lost.  Although  the  tide  of  battle  began  to  turn  in 
favor  of  the  Directory  by  the  victory  of  Zurich  in  September, 
1799,  this  body  had  already  fallen  into  such  disrepute  that  some 
change  of  government  was  imminent.  The  time  seemed  most 
opportune  for  his  return  if  he  were  to  take  advantage  of  the 
situation.  Abandoning  his  army  in  Egypt  and  accompanied 
by  only  a  few  of  his  most  trusted  generals,  Bonaparte  with  great 
difficulty  succeeded  in  escaping  the  patrol  of  English  ships  and 


THE  NAPOLEONIC   ERA  1 59 

in  making  his  way  back  to  France,  where  he  was  received  with  ' 
the  wildest  enthusiasm.  His  countrymen,  knowing  of  nothing 
but  his  successes,  Httle  reaUzed  that  his  Egyptian  expedition  The  End  of 
.  had  entirely  failed  in  its  main  purpose  and  that  it  was  only  a  ^  *  Egyptian 
matter  of  time  when  the  abandoned  army,  like  water,  would  be 
entirely  absorbed  by  the  sands  of  the  Egyptian  deserts.  How- 
ever, even  though  the  French  did  not  take  over  Egypt  in  this 
campaign,  they  left  their  mark  upon  it.  Bonaparte  had  taken 
with  him  prominent  engineers,  archaeologists,  and  scientists,  and 
the  expedition  in  many  ways  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  modem 
exploring  expedition.  These  men  studied  the  monuments, 
the  history,  the  institutions,  and  the  resources  of  the  country. 
For  the  first  time  Europe  was  given  a  knowledge  of  the  past  and 
an  interest  in  the  present  of  this  cradle  of  ancient  civilization 
which  has  been  the  foundation  for  all  later  study  and  interest. 
It  was  a  Frenchman,  ChampoUion,  who  deciphered  the  Rosetta  ' 

Stone,  which  was  discovered  at  this  time,  and  by  so  doing  made 
it  possible  for  scholars  to  read  the  hieroglyphics  and  marvel  at 
the  achievements  of  the  long-forgotten  Pharaohs. 

72.  Establishment  of  Bonaparte's  Power  in  France.  —  Bona- 
parte had  returned  at  a  time  most  favorable  for  the  furtherance 
of  his  ambitions.  All  eyes  were  now  turned  to  him  as  the 
instrument  for  extricating  France  from  her  present  troubles 
and  restoring  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  distracted  country.  In 
his  absence  matters  had  gone  from  bad  to  worse.  The  country 
was  bankrupt;  the  roads  infested  with  brigands;  the  govern- 
ment utterly  discredited  and  despised;  and  graft  reigned  inefficiency an< 
supreme.  The  efforts  of  the  American  representatives  to  secure  the^irect^** 
a  treaty  of  friendship  with  the  new  government  showed  up  in 
startling  fashion  the  corruption  which  honeycombed  the  ad- 
ministration and  brought  our  country  to  the  verge  of  war  with 
its  former  ally.  The  American  representatives  were  not  only 
unable  to  get  a  hearing  with  the  directors,  but  it  was  also  inti- 
mated by  certain  men  who  acted  as  go-betweens  in  the  nego- 
tiations that  they  could  neither  look  for  a  favorable  reception 


i6o     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Overthrow  of 
the  Directory 


nor  a  satisfactory  conclusion  Lo  their  mission  without  first 
advancing  large  sums  of  money  to  members  of  the  French 
government.  This  prompted  one  of  our  diplomats  to  ex- 
claim: "Millions  for  defence,  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute." 
President  Adams  laid  bare  the  negotiations  in  a  message 
to  Congress  substituting  for  the  names  of  these  agents  the 
letters  X,  Y,  Z,  and  the  episode  is  usually  known  as  the  X,  Y,  Z 
affair. 

Bonaparte  showed  his  political  sagacity  by  sounding  the 
feelings  of  the  different  factions  and  leaders  before  committing 
himself  to  any  line  of  action.  The  presence  of  his  brother  in 
one  of  the  law-making  bodies  and  the  cooperation  of  Sieyes,  an 
unscrupulous  politician  and  one  of  the  Directors,  enabled  him 
to  plan  and  execute  successfully  the  overthrow  of  the  Directory 
and  the  formation  of  a  new  government  known  as  the  Consulate, 
*  a  name  taken  from  the  pages  of  Roman  history.     By  force 

and  intrigue  they  executed  the  coup  d^etat  of  the  iSth  Bru- 
maire  ^  as  it  was  called,  by  which  they  placed  themselves  in 
entire  control  of  the  state.  This  coup  d'etat,  or  quickly  executed 
move  against  the  existing  order,  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  such 
steps  in  the  history  of  France. 

Under  Bonaparte's  influence  a  complicated  constitution  was 
now  drawn  up  which  divided  the  legislative  power  between  four 
bodies:  one  to  propose  the  laws;  another  to  discuss  them;  one  to 
vote  upon  them;  and  finally  a  Senate  to  determine  their  consti- 
tutionality. The  real  power  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  three 
The  Consulate  consuls,  of  whom  Bonapartc  was  named  first  consul,  his  col- 
leagues counting  for  little  more  than  figure-heads.  In  all  but 
name  Bonaparte  was  now  master  of  France.  He  had  made 
himself  necessary,  almost  indispensable,  to  his  countrymen,  and 
they  gladly  placed  themselves  under  his  orders.  They  believed 
him  to  be  all  that  he  claimed  himself  to  be,  "a  true  child  of  the 
Revolution."     He  was,  therefore,  the  proper  person  to  com- 

1  Brumaire  was  the  second  month  of  the  republican  calendar.    The 
date  according  to  our  calendar  is  November  9,  1799. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


i6i 


plete  its  work.  The  true  situation  was  probably  appreciated 
only  by  the  few,  as  the  new  Constitution  of  the  Year  VIII  was 
submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people  and  was  approved  by  a 
large  majority.     This  device,  which  Bonaparte  employed  upon 


i  ®s 

JE-^^fc^'       -            jt-  *« 

j 

i 

p 

*4 

The  Coup  d'Etat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire 

Bonaparte  entered  the  Councils,  escorted  by  soldiers;  the  Ancients  listened 
to  him  quietly;  but  the  Five  Hundred  in  tumult  proposed  to  declare  him  and 
his  followers  outlaws;  and  after  a  stormy  scene  the  deputies  were  driven  from 
the  hall  by  the  grenadiers. 

other  occasions  of  a  similar  character,  was  known  as  the  ple- 
biscite (another  term  smacking  of  the  days  of  the  Roman  re- 
pubhc),  and  by  it  the  people  were  allowed  to  vote  yes  or  no, 
without  comment,  upon  propositions  carefully  prepared  before- 
hand by  those  in  authority.     It.  might  have  been   termed  a 


of  the  Consulate 
into  the  Empire 


162     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

form  of  referendum  had  the  proposals  originated  with  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  people  themselves. 
Transformation  Bonaparte  had  not  been  in  power  long  before  he  submitted  to 
the  people  the  question  as  to  whether  the  term  of  the  first  consul 
should  not  be  for  life.  Still  later  he  submitted  his  final  proposal, 
that  he  be  created  Emperor  of  the  French  people.  Each  of 
these  changes  involved  modifications  in  the  existing  government, 
but  not  one  of  these  was  serious  enough  to  give  rise  to  any  dis- 
turbance of  the  existing  order.  When  Bonaparte  undertook  to 
set  France  in  order  in  1799,  many  of  the  royalists  had  misin- 
terpreted his  purpose.  They  had  expected  him  to  play  the  role 
of  another  Monk,  using  his  sword  to  bring  back  the  exiled 
Bourbons  as  Monk  had  used  his  to  restore  the  exiled  Stuarts. 
They  were  soon  undeceived.  His  ideal  seems  to  have  been  the 
inauguration  of  a  form  of  benevolent  despotism  for  France  with 
himself  as  the  despot.  There  were  probably  many  reasons  which 
prompted  Bonaparte  to  the  final  step  by  which  he  made  himself 
Emperor,  not  the  least  of  which  was  his  far-reaching  ambition, 
especially  his  desire  for  glory  and  his  delight  in  the  working 
out  of  big  problems.  He  looked  upon  himself  as  a  second 
Charlemagne,  who  was  destined  to  confer  upon  all  western 
Europe  the  benefits  of  the  French  Revolution,  even  as  the  great 
hero  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  conferred  upon  it  the  blessings  of 
peace  and  unity. 

73.  The  Work  of  Peace.  —  Bonaparte  saw  the  need  of  a 
speedy  and  satisfactory  solution  of  several  domestic  problems 
which  had  long  torn  France  asunder  and  had  proved  serious  ob- 
stacles to  the  realization  of  that  peace  and  prosperity  which,  in 
deference  to  the  people's  demands,  he  was  so  anxious  to  estab- 
lish. Although  he  regarded  himself  as  entirely  outside  the  do- 
main of  religion  and  morals,  time  and  again  he  declared  that  no 
state  could  be  permanent  that  was  not  grounded  upon  an  estab- 
lished church.  He  sought  to  put  an  end  to  the  strife  between 
the  clergy  and  the  government  by  opening  negotiations  with  the 
Pope  for  a  settlement  of  these  controversies.    Bonaparte  was  by 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  163 

no  means  desirous  of  restoring  the  church  to  a  position  where 
it  might  prove  a  possible  rival  to  his  own  authority.  Accord- 
ingly, he  secured  the  assent  of  the  Pope  to  the  Concordat  of  1801, 
an  arrangement  under  which  church  and  state  worked  together, 
not  always  harmoniously,  it  is  true,  until  its  repeal  in  1905. 
^The  Catholic  Church  renounced  its  claims  upon  the  lands 
which  had  been  wrested  from  it  ten  years  before  and  was 
again  recognized  as  the  state  church.  No  church  dignitaries 
were  to  be  appointed  without  the  consent  of  Bonaparte,  who 
retained  in  his  own  hands  the  power  of  nomination.  The  gov- 
ernment recognized  the  jurisdiction  and  headship  of  the  Pope 
over  the  French  church,  but  the  church  in  France  retained  its 
essentially  national  character.  By  a  series  of  "  organic  articles  " 
which  Bonaparte  added  to  the  Concordat,  the  pubhcation  of 
papal  bulls  and  the  holding  of  councils  were  forbidden  without 
the  authority  of  the  government. 

There  were  other  problems  of  domestic  administration  pressing 
for  solution.  Bonaparte  completed  the  work  of  reorganizing 
the  system  of  local  government  under  which  so  much  of  disorder 
and  turmoil  had  been  possible,  replacing  the  older  governing  Administrative 
bodies  with  a  series  of  officials  to  whom  were  assigned  well-  ^«^o"°« 
defined  areas  to  administer.  The  lower  officials  answered  to 
others  of  higher  rank  placed  over  them,  all  authority  finally 
centring  in  the  head  of  the  state.  It  was  in  reality  an  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  military  organization  to  the  civil  govern- 
ment. The  preservation  of  the  essential  features  of  this  system 
to  our  own  day  attests  its  success. 

Bonaparte  completed  much  of  the  work  begun  by  the  Con- 
vention. In  a  remarkably  short  time  he  had  systematized  the  Law 
laws  of  France  and  drawn  up  various  codes,  the  most  important 
being  the  Civil  Code.  The  work  was  so  well  done  that  it  forms 
the  basis  of  the  French  legal  system  of  today.  The  influence 
of  these  changes  may  be  traced  in  the  legal  codes  of  several 
other  European  States.  He  also  put  the  finishing  touches 
upon  the  French  educational  system  by  the  creation  of  the 


1 64    ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Education 


The  Legion 
of  Honor 


Public  Works 


The  Bank 
of  France 


Schemes  for 

Colonial 

Empire 


Louisiana 


University  of  France,  by  which  all  the  public  schools  of  the 
empire  were  made  a  part  of  one  great  organization  and  were 
directed  in  all  their  work  by  the  central  government.  These 
changes  were  also  a  part  of  the  enduring  work  of  the  Napo- 
leonic era. 

Bonaparte  also  established  the  Legion  of  Honor,  an  organiza- 
tion through  which  those  serving  the  state  in  any  capacity  might 
receive  recognition  from  the  government  for  work  of  conspicuous 
merit.  It  served,  too,  as  did  so  many  of  Bonaparte's  arrange- 
ments, to  bind  the  people  the  more  closely  to  himself  and  made 
it  appear  that  he  alone  was  the  great  source  of  honor  and  ad- 
vancement. 

In  various  ways  Bonaparte  encouraged  trade  and  industry. 
He  won  the  support  of  the  peasants  and  the  small  landholders 
by  placing  them  in  secure  possession  of  their  lands.  The  titles 
to  these  had  been  none  too  secure  as  the  result  of  the  many 
changes  through  which  the  country  had  passed.  He  also  under- 
took great  public  works,  such  as  beautifying  Paris  by  monuments 
and  parks  and  the  construction  of  beautiful  avenues.  He  built 
great  roads  along  natural  highways  and  improved  others  which 
had  fallen  into  disuse  or  had  been  neglected.  He  established 
the  Bank  of  France  as  a  means  of  maintaining  the  credit  of  the 
country  and  of  furthering  international  trading  operations. 
This  institution  was  modelled  upon  the  famous  Bank  of  England. 
To  his  credit  must  be  placed  the  final  successful  solution  of  the 
financial  problems  which  had  taxed  the  resources  of  a  Necker 
and  a  Calonne  and  a  score  of  other  financiers  and  had  been  fear- 
fully complicated  by  the  issues  of  great  quantities  of  assignats. 

His  plans  for  restoring  to  the  French  people  the  prestige  which 
had  once  been  theirs  as  a  great  colonial  power  are  of  special 
interest,  not  alone  for  the  breadth  of  view  which  they  illustrate 
but  for  their  bearing  upon  the  future  of  North  and  South 
America.  He  forced  Spain  to  transfer  the  Louisiana  territory 
to  France  with  a  view  to  developing  its  vast  resources  and  mak- 
ing it  a  great  outlet  for  French  industry  and  French  enterprise. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  165 

But  the  course  of  events  in  Europe,  particularly  the  outbreak 
of  war  with  England  in  1803,  prompted  him  to  abandon  these 
grandiose  schemes  and  he  transferred  the  title  to  the  United 
States  for  $15,000,000,  as  the  possession  of  this  sum  at  the  time 
outweighed  any  considerations  of  the  future  value  of  the  terri- 
tory as  a  French  colony.  In  pursuance  of  the  ambitions  of  the 
French  people  he  pressed  the  campaign  for  the  reconquest  of 
the  island  of  Hayti,  which  had  rebelled  under  the  leadership  of  Hayti 
one  of  the  greatest  representatives  of  the  negro  race,  Toussaint 
rOuverture.  He  realized  when  too  late  the  fearful  cost  of  the 
enterprise,  thousands  of  the  best  troops  of  France  perishing 
through  the  ravages  of  the  deadly  climate  and  at  the  hands  of 
the  infuriated  negro  population.  Favored  by  projects  which  de- 
manded the  conqueror's  entire  energies  at  home,  the  island  soon 
recovered  its  independence,  setting  up  the  hrst  negro  repubhc 
in  the  new  world. 

74.   The  Establishment  of  Bonaparte's  Power  in  Italy.  — 
Most  of  the  work  just  described  was  completed  within  the  inter- 
val between  Bonaparte's  arrival  in  France  in  1799  and  May, 
1803.    Upon  becoming  First  Consul  he  felt  it  to  be  his  task  to 
recover  once  more  the  territories  which  he  had  won  in  his  memo- 
rable Italian  campaign  of  1796-7.    As  has  already  been  noted 
(sec.  71),  the  tide  had  begun  to  turn  in  favor  of  the  armies  The  Second 
of  the  Directory  even  before  Bonaparte  had  landed  upon  French  J!^* "jgn 
soil.     By  his  great  victory  of  Marengo  in  Italy  and  Moreau's 
victory  of  Hohenlinden  in  Germany,  he  dealt  such  a  blow  to  Marengo  and 
the  combination  known   as   the  Second  Coalition   (England,   ^o^®**^**®" 
Russia,  Austria,  Turkey,  and  Naples),  which  had  been  formed  in 
his  absence,  that  Austria  was  glad  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace,  and 
England,  laying  aside  her  arms  for  the  first  time  after  almost 
ten  years  of  continuous  fighting,  soon  afterwards  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Amiens.    The  Marengo  campaign  in  Italy  was  a 
masterpiece  of  military  strategy.     Bonaparte  struck  successive 
blows  at  his  enemies  when  they  least  expected  it  and  showed 
himself  the  greatest  general  in  Europe.     By  the  treaty  with 


1 66    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Austria  (Peace  of  Luneville,  1801),  Italy  was  practically  placed 
under  French  domination.  The  Cisalpine  republic  was  reestab- 
lished, but  was  soon  transformed  into  the  Italian  republic  under 
the  presidency  of  Bonaparte;    Austria  recognized  the  Helvetic 

repubhc,  which  had  been 
formed  in  Switzerland  un- 
der French  auspices  a  few 
years  before,  and  the  Ba- 
tavian  republic,  which  had 
been  created  in  the  same 
fashion  out  of  Holland. 
The  French  also  established 
themselves  in  the  fortresses 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples 
and  consequently  held  sway 
throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  peninsula. 
This  reestablishment  of  the 
power  of  France  in  Italy 
marl^s  the  beginning  of  a 
series  of  changes  which 
made  Bonaparte  master 
and  dictator  of  Europe. 

75.  Bonaparte  and  Eng- 
land. —  When,  exhausted 
by  the  strain  of  war,  Eng- 
land signed  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens,  her  far-sighted 
statesmen  recognized  that  they  had  merely  concluded  a  tem- 
porary peace.  Bonaparte  was  prompted  to  lay  aside  hostili- 
ties for  the  time  being,  that  he  might  the  better  prepare  for  the 
struggle  which  he  knew  could  not  be  long  delayed  or  deferred. 
The  power  of  France  had  grown  too  great  for  the  security  of 
England.  The  situation  might  be  compared  with  that  which 
prevailed  in  Europe  in  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.    No  sooner  was 


The  Passage  of  the  Alps 

Bonaparte  crossing  the  Alps  by  the 
Great  Saint  Bernard  Pass  on  his  second 
Italian  campaign  in  1800.  His  men  are 
dragging  the  cannon  over  some  of  the  dif- 
ficult places  to  the  music  of  a  band  sta- 
tioned by  the  road. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  167 

the  treaty  signed  than  the  English  began  to  suspect  the  First 
Consul  of  bad  faith,  and  they  therefore  refused  to  carry  out  one 
of  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  treaty,  namely  the  surrender 
of  the  island  of  Malta.  Bonaparte  also  showed  himself  very 
sensitive  to  the  comments  which  appeared  in  the  English  news- 
papers. With  the  strained  relations  which  existed  it  was  not  a 
difficult  matter  to  bring  about  an  open  rupture.  The  English  Dissatisfaction 
merchants  and  manufacturers  undoubtedly  welcomed  the  peace  ''"^  ^^  ^®*^* 
in  the  hope  that  it  would  mean  new  markets  for  their  wares  in 
France  and  the  French  dependencies,  but  in  this  they  were 
doomed  to  disappointment,  as  Bonaparte  showed  no  desire  of 
opening  up  France  to  English  merchandise.  His  policy  was 
rather  the  opposite,  to  surround  her  with  a  Chinese  wall  of 
exclusion  so  far  as  trade  regulations  were  concerned. 

It  has  been  often  said,  and  with  much  truth,  that  it  was 
England's  persistent  hostility  that  brought  about  the  destruction 
of  all  Bonaparte's  schemes  and  effected  his  final  downfall.  The 
English  people  certainly  exhibited  in  a  remarkable  manner  the 
bull-dog  tenacity  characteristic  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  the  long 
struggle  which  now  opened  in  1803  and  which  was  only  to  close  Renewal 
upon  the  battle-field  of  Waterloo  in  181 5  after  weary  years  of  °^HostUities 
fighting.  In  this  phase  of  the  war  and  in  the  earlier  struggles 
with  the  French  republic,  the  island  empire  was  forced  to  meet 
every  kind  of  an  attack.  The  efforts  which  the  French  had 
already  launched  against  her  through  Ireland  in  1796  and 
through  Egypt  in  1798  had  proved  unsuccessful.  Bonaparte 
now  tried  or  rather  planned  a  direct  invasion.  He  began 
massing  troops  at  Boulogne  and  gathering  transports  pre-  The  Camp 
paratory  to  conveying  them  across  the  Channel.  The  Channel,  **  °  °^* 
although  narrow,  is  a  choppy  bit  of  water  and  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  cross  even  in  time  of  peace.  Bonaparte  felt  that  he  must 
have  command  of  the  Channel  long  enough  to  land  his  troops, 
and  with  this  end  in  view  he  planned  a  series  of  manoeuvres 
with  the  joint  French  and  Spanish  fleets.  These  plans,  how- 
ever, came  to  naught,  and  in  1805  the  English  fleet  under  Lord 


1 68     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Trafalgar,  1805  Nelson  encountered  the  combined  fleets  off  Cape  Trafalgar  on 
the  Spanish  coast.  In  the  battle  which  followed  almost  the 
entire  French  fleet  was  destroyed.  England  was  now  more 
than  ever  mistress  of   the  seas,  but  the   battle  of  Trafalgar 

was  Nelson's  last  exploit, 
as  he  was  killed  in  the  ac- 
tion.    It  was  on  the  eve 
of  this  battle  that  Nelson 
issued  the  famous  order  to 
his  men,  "England  expects 
every  man  to  do  his  duty." 
Before   treating  the 
further    progress   of    this 
duel  with  England,   it  is 
necessary  to   note   the 
assumption   of  the  impe- 
rial   title  by  the   First 
Consul.      Eirectly  follow- 
ing the  Peace  of  Amiens,  it 
was  proposed  to  extend  his 
consulship   for  life.     This 
proposal  was  submitted  to 
a  popular  vote  and  three 
million  and  a  half  favored 
it,  while  only  eight  thousand  were   unfavorable.      The  gov- 
ernment was  made  more   absolute.       About  this  time  plots 
against  Napoleon's  life  were  discovered,  and  in  the  face  of  a 
new  European  war,  it  was  considered  necessary  to  show  the 
confidence  which  France  felt  in  him  by  bestowing  upon  him  a 
higher  title  than  any  he  had  hitherto  borne.      Accordingly, 
in  1804,  the  title  of  Napoleon  I,  Emperor  of  the  French,  was 
conferred  upon  him.      From  this  time  on  he  was  known  as 
Napoleon.      His  coronation  was  very  spectacular. 

76.   Extension  of  Napoleon's  Power  over  Central  Europe.  — 
Developments  upon  the  continent  had  already  modified  Napo- 


Nelson 

Nelson  in  his  cabin  on  H.  M.  S.  Vic- 
tory before  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  From 
the  painting  by  Orchard. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


169 


Icon's  plan  of  invading  England.  The  Tsar  had  joined  with 
Austria  against  Napoleon,  and  England  had  promised  substantial 
financial  assistance.  Although  it  was  understood  that  Prussia 
would  join  the  alliance,  she  failed  to  act  with  them.    Napoleon 


The  Coronation  of  Napoleon 

Napoleon  is  here  shown  taking  the  crown  from  the  hands  .of  the  Pope 
and  placing  it  upon  his  own  head,  thus  declaring  himself  above  the  power 
of  the  Churdi. 

had  been  negotiating  with  her  ruler  and  had  purchased  his 
neutrality  with  the  bait  of  George  Ill's  Electorate  of  Hanover. 
This  combination  of  Russia,  England,  and  Austria  was  known  Formation 
as  the  Third  Coalition  against  France  and  had  been  brought   xhir/coaUtion 
about  largely  through  the  labors  of  William  Pitt  the  Younger, 


170    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

the  English  prime  minister,  who  expected  great  things  from  it. 
The  Austrians  placed  two  armies  in  the  field  and  counted  upon 
reinforcements  from  Russia  before  they  should  come  to  blows 
with  Napoleon.  The  latter  acted  with  characteristic  prompt- 
ness and  energy,  and  before  the  Austrians  and  Russians  were 
able  to  join  forces  he  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the  Austrians 
at  Uim.  Two  months  later  he  encountered  the  combined  forces 
uim  with  such  success  at  Austerlitz  (1805)  that  the  Emperor  Francis 

and  Austerlitz  j^^j^i^jy  begged  f or  an  interview  with  the  victor  to  arrange  terms 
of  peace.  Austerlitz  has  been  called  the  finest  battle  in  history 
—  a  model  combat.  It  was  a  decisive  victory,  and  Austria  was 
completely  overthrown.  Pitt  was  so  disappointed  over  the 
outcome  of  his  efforts  that  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed  "Roll 
up  the  map  of  Europe ;  it  will  not  be  wanted  these  ten  years. " 
He  did  not  long  survive  the  shock,  as  he  died  in  January, 
1806. 

Napoleon  was  given  a  free  hand   to  make  any   arrange- 
ments which  he  might  choose  for  central  Europe.     He  now  as- 
Reorganization   sumed  the  role  of  a  modern  Charlemagne.     Within  the  next  six 
of  Germany       months  he  had  made  four  kings;   had  transferred  Hanover  to 

and  Changes  °   ' 

in  Italy  Prussia;  had  cut  down  the  states  of  Germany  from  three  hun- 

dred and  sixty  to  eighty- two;  had  abolished  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  altogether;  and  had  formed  out  of  the  states  along  the 
Rhine  a  confederation  under  his  presidency  (The  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine).  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Pr£ssburg  which 
Austria  signed  with  Napoleon,  valuable  territories  on  the  Ad- 
riatic were  ceded  to  France.  By  these  cessions  Austria  lost 
control  of-  the  routes  to  the  Adriatic,  to  Italy,  and  down  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine.  Napoleon  conferred  the  title  of  king  upon 
the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  of  Wurtemberg  for  "  the  attachment 
which  they  had  displayed  to  the  Emperor";  transformed  the 
Batavian  republic  into  the  Kingdom  of  Holland,  making  his 
brother  Louis  its  ruler;  and  seized  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  be- 
stowing the  crown  upon  his  brother  Joseph. 
Napoleon's  mastery  of  Europe,  however,  was  speedily  chal- 


THE  NAPOLEONIC   ERA  1 71 

lenged,  and  before  the  year  1806  had  passed  a  Fourth  Coalition   The  Fourth 

was  formed  against  him  consisting  this  time  of  England,  Prussia,   ^°*""°*^ 

and  Russia.     The  king  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  III,  had 

shown  throughout  this  period  an  indecision  and  a  vacillation 

which  had  made  him  an  uncertain  factor  to  be  reckoned  with. 

Napoleon  had  handled  him  so  skilfully  that  he  was  in  danger  of 

being  completely  isolated  and  of  being  forced  to  act  alone  in  his 

dealings  with  France.     He  had  held  off  from  participation  in  the  Attitude  of 

Austrian  campaign.     Napoleon,  however,  had  shown  himself  ^^^^^ 

in  reality  so  antagonistic  to  Prussian  interests  that  Frederick 

William  at  last  decided  that  the  interests  of  Prussia  demanded 

war  with  Napoleon.     Prussia  had  reasons  enough  for  placing 

obstacles  in  the  path  of  Napoleon,  but  the  hesitation  of  her  ruler 

led  to  her  undoing.     Napoleon  again  proved  himself  a  master 

of  the  art  of  war,  and  in  the  two  battles  of  Auerstaedt  and  Jena 

(1806)  inflicted  upon  the  Prussians  such  a  terrible  defeat  that 

within  a  month  after  the  campaign  had  opened  there  was  not  a 

vestige  remaining  of  the  great  Prussian  army  which  had  gone  out  jena  and  the 

against  him.    Jena  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  miUtary  prestige  ^"^^g^°** 

so  long  enjoyed  by  Prussia.     The  king  showed  himself  a  cowardly 

poltroon,  taking  refuge  in  the  one  province  remaining  to  him  and 

writing  to  one  of  his  ministers  to  see  to  it  that  Napoleon  was  well 

taken  care  of  in  such  of  the  royal  palaces  as  he  should  choose  for 

his  residence,  and  requesting  that  he  make  the  necessary  drafts 

upon  the  Prussian  treasury  to  meet  the  expense.     Napoleon 

made  a  triumphal  entry  into  Berlin  and  exacted  an  oath  from 

all  the  officials  and  functionaries  of  the  kingdom  to  "contribute 

with  all  their  forces  for  the  execution  of  the  measures  which 

should  be  prescribed  to  them  for  the  service  of  the  French  army 

and  not  to  enter  into  any  correspondence  or  communication 

with  their  enemies."    They  one  and  all  sought  to  outdo  each 

other  in  their  show  of  submission  and  weakness. 

77.   Napoleon's  Power  at  its  Height.  —  Napoleon  now  pressed  Napoleon 
on  against  the  Russians,  but  found  in  them  a  much  more  stub-  *" 
born  foe.     Although  he  clamied  the  battle  of  Eylau  as  a  victory  Eyiau 


172     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


because  the  Russian  army  retired  from  the  field,  —  a  move 
which  Napoleon  himself  seriously  contemplated  but  which  the 
Russian  general  was  the  first  actually  to  execute,  —  nothing  was 
gained  by  the  combat.  The  battle  was  fought  in  a  blinding 
snowstorm  and  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  of  the  Napoleonic  epoch. 
One  fifth  of  the  forces  engaged  were  either  killed  or  wounded. 
Napoleon  did  not  resume  military  operations  against  the  Rus- 
sians until  the  spring,  and  in  June,  1807,  won  such  a  decisive 
Friediand  victory  at  Friedland  that  the  Tsar  sued  for  peace,.     The  two 

emperors,  the  one  of  the  East  and  the  other  of  the  West,  arranged 
Meeting  a  meeting  on  a  raft  at  Tilsit  in  the  river  Niemen  on  June  16, 

at  TUsit  1807.     The  King  of  Prussia  was  not  admitted  to  their  delibera- 

tions, but  it  was  he  who  paid  the  expenses  of  the  war,  for  by  the 
terms  to  which  they  agreed  he  was  deprived  of  his  new  acquisition 
Hanover  and,  in  addition,  of  all  territories  which  he  possessed 
upon  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe  and  all  that  Prussia  had  taken  from 
Poland  in  the  second  and  third  partitions  of  that  unfortunate 
country.  These  terms  were  granted  him.  Napoleon  intimated, 
"out  of  consideration  for  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  theRus- 
sias."  The  two  emperors  were  apparently  very  much  attracted 
to  each  other.  Each  set  out  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  other 
and  succeeded  so  well  that  the  Tsar  recognized  all  that  Napoleon 
had  done  in  the  West  and  Napoleon  in  turn  assured  his  new  friend 
that  he  should  have  a  perfectly  free  hand  in  the  East.  The  Tsar 
was  to  offer  England  his  mediation  and  attack  her  on  his  ally's 
behalf  if  she  did  not  accept  it;  while,  on  the  other  hand.  Napoleon 
was  to  render  the  Tsar  a  like  service,  offering  the  Turks,  who  were 
at  war  with  Russia,  his  mediation.  In  the  event  of  their  refusal 
he  promised  to  attack  them  and  to  dismember  their  empire. 
Completion  Napoleon  now  completed  the  changes  which  he  had  set  on  foot 

Reorganization   ^^  Germany  by  forming  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  out  of  the 
of  Germany       lands  taken  from  Prussia,  intrusting  it  to  his  brother  Jerome,  and 
by  conferring  upon  the  Elector  of  Saxony  the  title  of  King, 
intrusting  to  him  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  which  he  had 
formed  from  Prussian  Poland. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


173 


174     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Extent  of 

Napoleon's 

Power 


Napoleon's 
Designs  upon 
Spain 


Weakness 
of  Spain 


Attitude  of  the 
French  People 
towards 
Napoleon 


The  Treaty  of  Tilsit  marks  the  height  of  Napoleon's  power. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  Spain,  his  influence  was  supreme 
from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  in  the  West  to  the  dominions  of 
the  Turk  in  the  East,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Baltic. 
Although  Spain  had  been  planning  an  attack  upon  Napoleon 
in  1806,  the  outcome  of  the  Jena  campaign  dampened  somewhat 
her  martial  ardor  and  these  plans  were  speedily  abandoned. 
Napoleon  had  already  determined  upon  the  ruin  of  the 
Spanish  Bourbons,  for  he  had  learned  of  Spain's  proposed 
defection  from  correspondence  found  in  the  Prussian  capital. 
He  had  not  as  yet  set  about  to  accomplish  it.  His  power, 
however,  was  recognized  throughout  the  peninsula  even  though 
it  had  not  yet  fallen  under  his  transforming  hand.  His  disposal 
of  Louisiana  in  1803  is  a  clear  indication  of  the  subservient 
role  which  Spain  had  been  playing  for  some  time  past  under 
her  weak  ruler,  Charles  IV.  The  one  great  power  which  still 
refused  to  acknowledge  his  sway  was  England,  and  Napoleon 
now  set  himself  to  the  great  task  of  securing  its  overthrow.  He 
had  not  only  France  to  draw  upon,  with  all  its  wealth  and  re- 
sources, but  Europe  as  well. 

78.  The  Influence  of  the  Napoleonic  Regime.  —  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Napoleonic  regime,  as  it  might  be  called,  now  began 
to  show  itself  both  upon  France  and  upon  Europe.  Napoleon 
had  time  and  again  remarked  at  the  outset  of  his  career  that 
what  the  French  people  wanted  was  glory.  He  had  insisted 
that  the  love  of  glory  was  with  Frenchmen  a  sixth  sense.  He 
had  played  upon  this  string  so  persistently  that  by  1807  his 
hearers  were  beginning  to  weary  somewhat  of  the  strain.  In 
his  earlier  campaigns  he  had  done  much  to  restore  France  to  her 
position  of  honor  and  respect  among  the  nations,  but  it  was  no 
longer  possible  to  see  in  the  manifold  schemes  of  Napoleon  the 
Emperor  the  advantage  of  the  French  nation.  The  bitter 
warfare  which  he  waged  with  England,  which  became  the 
more  bitter  with  every  passing  year,  was  regarded  by  many  as 
highly  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  France.    England  had 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


175 


already  entered  upon  that  great  industrial  era  in  her  history 
which  made  her  the  workshop  of  Europe  (sec.  86  ff.)  and  her 
control  of  the  seas  made  it  difficult  for  the  French  people  to 
secure  many  of  the  articles  from  the  East  and  from  America  to 
which  they  had  so  long  been  accustomed.  With  the  passage 
of  time  the  feeling  became  stronger  that  Napoleon's  enterprises 
were  dictated  with  an  eye  primarily  to  the  glory  and  advance- 
ment of  a  single  man  rather  than  to  that  of  the  French  nation 
which  he  pretended  to  serve. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  spite  of  the  splendid  services  which 
Napoleon  had  rendered  France  in  completing  and  rounding  out 
the  work  begun  in  the  days  of  the  Revolution,  there  was  now 
to  be  detected  in  much  that  he  did  a  strain  of  absolutism,  a  Growth  of 
desire  to  bend  the  people  to  his  will.  Liberty  of  the  press  and  ^^»°i""8™ 
of  speech  had  entirely  disappeared.  Reverence  for  the  emperor 
was  not  only  taught  in  the  schools  but  formed  a  part  of  the 
catechism  of  the  state  church.  A  thoroughly  centralized  bureau- 
cratic administration  had  replaced  the  more  democratic  forms 
of  government  which  had  existed  in  the  early  days  of  the  Rev- 
olution, and,  with  the  increased  importance  attached  to  the 
court  and  to  the  services  rendered  to  the  person  of  the  em- 
peror, all  individual  initiative  seemed  at  an  end.  The  plans 
which  Napoleon  sought  to  carry  out  from  this  time  forward 
emphasized  more  than  ever  the  great  change  which  had  taken 
place  in  his  relations  to  the  French  people. 

Although  Napoleon  by  his  supremacy  in  Europe  had  been  Europe 
able  to  confer  upon  some  of  the  most  backward  communities  "^^  Napoleon 
many  of  the  blessings  of  the  Revolution  and  a  law,  order,  and 
system  entirely  foreign  to  them  under  their  exiled  rulers  and 
administrators,  here  again  he  ignored  altogether  the  wishes  of 
the  governed  and  failed  on  almost  every  occasion  to  take  them 
into  his  confidence.  His  attitude  was  very  much  like  that  of 
the  benevolent  despot  of  the  earlier  period,  but  there  was  this 
marked  difference  —  the  administrators  whom  he  placed  over 
the  conquered  or  annexed  territories  were  in  most  cases  for- 


176     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Attempts  to 
crush  England 


eigners,  aliens  to  the  people  over  whom  they  were  set  to  govern. 
In  spite,  therefore,  of  the  benefits  which  he  conferred  of  good 
laws,  good  roads,  an  efficient  poHce,  and  the  like,  the  great  empire 
which  he  had  reared  rested  in  reality  upon  a  foundation  of  sand 
likely  at  any  moment  to  collapse  into  a  mighty  ruin. 

79.  The  Nationalist  Reaction  Against  Napoleon.  —  It  was  not 
the  rulers  of  Europe,  not  primarily  the  persistent  opposition  of 
England,  which  brought  Napoleon's  power  to  an  end,  but  the 
people  themselves,  whose  wishes  he  failed  to  consult  and  whose 
opposition  in  an  evil  day  he  finally  aroused.  He  brought  this 
hornet's  nest  about  his  ears  in  the  supreme  effort  which  he  now 
put  forth  to  crush  England.  This  scheme  had  begun  to  take 
shape  in  1806,  but  it  was  really  launched  in  all  its  vigor  after  he 
had  secured  the  cooperation  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  in  that  mem- 
orable interview  on  the  Russian  frontier  in  June,  1807.  The  plan 
was  to  sap  England's  strength  by  cutting  off  her  commercial 
intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  world  and  particularly  her  traffic 
with  Europe.  Napoleon  now  had  the  continent  sufficiently 
under  his  control  to  feel  that  he  could  effectively  close  all  its 
ports  to  English  merchandise  and  to  English  vessels.  While 
in  Berlin,  just  after  the  Jena  campaign,  he  issued  the  Berlin 
Decree,  proclaiming  all  the  ports  of  England  in  a  state  of  block- 
ade, forbidding  trade  in  EngUsh  and  colonial  wares  and  exclud- 
ing from  French  and  alhed  ports  any  ship  that  had  touched  at 
those  of  Great  Britain.  This  marked  the  beginning  of  the  so- 
called  continental  blockade  or  continental  system.  England 
immediately  retahated  with  Orders  in  Council,  forbidding  all 
neutrals  to  trade  between  France  and  her  alhes  or  between 
ports  that  observed  the  Berlin  Decree.  Napoleon  came  back 
Milan  Decree  at  England  in  the  Milan  Decree,  by  which  any  neutral  vessel 
obeying  this  order  should  be  regarded  as  denationalized  and  be 
treated  as  an  English  vessel.  The  United  States  was  the  worst 
sufferer  by  these  orders,  and  the  trade  of  New  England  was  well- 
nigh  ruined  in  the  commercial  warfare  which  followed.  The 
right  of  search,  which  was  exercised  most  rigorously  by  England 


The  Berlin 
Decree 


Orders 
in  Council 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  177 

in  the  period  which  followed,  and  her  control  of  the  sea,  which  Right  of  search 

enabled  her  to  enforce  her  decrees,  finally  brought  the  United  ^^JJ^^LiU? 

States  to  the  point  of  war  with  England,  the  War  of  181 2.    It 

was  not  England  which  became  the  worst  sufferer  in  this  contest 

for  mastery,  but  rather  France  and  Europe.    The  situation  had 

been  bad  enough  before,  as  it  had  been  exceedingly  difficult  to 

procure  the  necessities  which  only  England  and  America  could 

supply.    Prices  now  began  to  soar  even  higher  as  a  result  of  the 

blockade,  and  France  was  so  hard  put  to  it  to  secure  the  necessary 

cloth  and  colonial  products  that  Napoleon  relaxed  somewhat  the 

rigors  of  the  blockade  by  issuing  licenses  to  a  favored  few  to 

bring  in  some  of  the  more  needed  articles. 

With  the  twofold  object  of  securing  a  firmer  control  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  for  the  enforcement  of  these  decrees  and  of  extend- 
ing his  direct  control  over  western  Europe  by  a  system  of  depend- 
ent kingdoms,  Napoleon  undertook  through  craft  and  force  to 
displace  the  Bourbons  from  the  Spanish  throne  and  to  annex 
Portugal  (1808) .     His  ambition  to  extend  his  sway  and  to  enlarge 
the  empire  over  which  he  ruled  seemed  to  know  no  bounds.     "I   Napoleon's 
may  find  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  in  Spain,  but  I  shall  not  find  unj^grLi 
the  limits  of  my  power, "  was  his  remark  on  one  occasion.    The  Monarchy 
attempt  to  accomplish  these  two  objects  opened  the  way  for  his 
downfall.     His  efforts  to  cut  off  Portuguese  trade  with  England 
and  annex  the  country  met  with  some  success  at  the  outset.    The 
same  was  true  of  Spain.    The  Portuguese  royal  family  fled  to  Portugal 
their  American  possessions  in  Brazil;    the  Spanish  Bourbons 
were  forced  to  abdicate,  and  their  title  was  conferred  upon  ^ 
Napoleon's  brother  Joseph.    These  were  but  temporary  sue-  ' 
cesses.     The  English  government  saw  the  wisdom  of  making 
common  cause  with  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  and  began 
throwing  armies  into  the  peninsula  and  supplying  officers  and 
money  to  the  native  population,  who  showed  everywhere  the 
bitterest  hostility  to  the  effort  to  establish  French  rule.    The  Resistance 
French  armies  were  speedily  forced  out  of  Portugal.     In  Spain  <>*  spain 
the  struggle  was  much  more  protracted,  lasting  almost  to  the 


1 78     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

end  of  the  Napoleonic  period.    The  new  king  of  Spain,  however, 
soon  abandoned  his  unwiUing  subjects.     Although  Napoleon 
had  set  on  foot  there,  reforms  such  as  the  abolition  of  the  Inqui- 
\    sition  and  the  equalization  of  taxation,  removing  burdens  which 
1   rested  most  heavily  upon  the  common  people,  they  showed  no 
gratitude  to  their  would-be  benefactor,  but,  encouraged  by  their 
priests,  set  on  foot  guerilla  warfare  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land.     Favored  by  the  rugged  nature  of  the 
country,  they  made  it  impossible  for  the  French  armies  to  secure 
any  permanent  foothold  or  effect  any  true  conquest.     Some  of 
the  best  soldiers  of  the  Empire  were  sacrificed  in  the  vain  effort 
to  subdue  the  land  and  retain  its  allegiance.    Although  Napoleon 
never  really  abandoned  the  enterprise  and  even  undertook  in 
person  a  campaign  in  Spain,  all  his  efforts  failed  to  achieve  any 
permanent  result.     The  tide  had  already  turned  and  his  power 
The  Peninsular  was  gradually  slipping  away.     This  long-drawn-out  campaign 
^^  was  known  as  the  Peninsular  War.     England  sent  over  some  of , 

her  very  best  generals,  among  them  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  after- 
ward known  as  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  Step  by  step  he  over- 
came the  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  placed  in  his  path 
by  his  own  "  incompetent  government  and  by  jealous,  exacting, 
and  slipshod  allies." 

Although  Austria  had  already  been  beaten  by  Napoleon  in 
three  campaigns,  in  the  spring  of  1809  her  emperor  again  deter- 
mined to  try  issues  with  Napoleon,  seeking  to  recover  the  power 
?A  ^®T°^*  ^^^  territory  which  had  been  ruthlessly  taken  from  him.  Devel- 
opments in  Spain,  especially  the  stubbornness  of  the  resistance 
there,  prompted  him  to  the  step.  Then,  too,  a  new  spirit  had 
appeared  in  Austria,  the  spirit  of  national  opposition.  The 
struggle  with  Napoleon  was  no  longer  an  affair  of  the  ruler  but 
of  the  people  themselves,  who  began  to  feel  the  shame  and  dis- 
grace of  foreign  control.  At  Aspern  Napoleon  was  again  vic- 
torious, but  this  time  the  Austrians  acquitted  themselves  so  well 
that  Europe  began  to  think  that  Napoleon  had  finally  met  his 
match.    Their  hopes  were  speedily  dashed  to  the  ground  seven 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  170 

weeks  later  in  the  battle  of  Wagram.  It  was  no  such  decisive  Wagram 
conflict  as  Austerlitz,  but  Austria  made  peace,  and  when,  in  fur- 
therance of  his  ambitions  for  a  Napoleonic  dynasty,  Napoleon 
asked  the  hand  of  the  Archduchess  Marie  Louise,  the  Emperor, 
her  father,  dared  not  say  him  nay.  The  battle  of  Wagram,  there- 
fore seemed  to  confirm  the  impression  that  Napoleon's  hold  upon 
Europe  was  permanent.  Before  marrying  this  Austrian  princess,  Napoieon-s 
Napoleon  had  secured  a  divorce  from  the  Empress  Toseohine,   ^y^8"<= 

11  'iri-  •  -IT  ,..  J        t'  }    Ambitions 

and  the  episode  of  his  parting  with  Josephine  is  perhaps  the  most  and  Marriage 
pathetic  in  his  entire  career.  A  son  was  born  to  the  emperor  in 
1811,  who  was  forthwith  crowned  King  of  Rome  and  was  desig- 
nated as  the  heir  to  the  throne.  All  Napoleon's  hopes  seemed 
about  to  be  reahzed.  He  had  not  yet  grasped  the  true  signifi- 
cance of  the  situation  in  the  peninsula."  Later  in  life  he  acknowl- 
edged that  it  was  the  Spanish  situation  which  destroyed  him. 
("It  was  the  Spanish  ulcer  which  ruined  me.") 

80.  The  Moscow  Campaign  and  the  War  of  Liberation.  — 
There  had  been  for  some  time  signs  of  disaffection  on  the  part  of 
the  Tsar.  Napoleon  had  felt  it  necessary  in  the  Congress  of 
Erfurt  (1808)  to  go  over  some  of  their  differences  just  before  the 
Austrian  campaign  in  order  to  hold  him  to  his  alliance.  The  Tsar  Hostility  of 
felt  the  pressure  of  the  Continental  System  and  began  to  see  *^®  ^*" 
that  Russia  was  playing  into  the  hands  of  Napoleon  rather  than 
conserving  her  own  interests.  He  had  looked  with  manifest  dis- 
approval upon  Napoleon's  creation  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  War- 
saw in  1807  and  was  fearful  of  the  results  for  Russian  Poland  of 
the  hopes  which  Napoleon  had  held  out  to  the  Pohsh  nation. 
Jmally  in  1812  the  break  came.  Napoleon  had  long  felt  its 
inevitableness,  but  he  thought  himself  ready  to  meet  it.  Gather- 
ing together  a  vast  host  which  included  the  veteran  forces 
which  had  served  him  so  splendidly  in  his  earlier  campaigns,  he 
planned  an  invasion  of  Russia  which  should  be  carried  out  with 
all  the  swiftness  and  decisiveness  of  his  campaigns  in  Italy,  in 
Germany,  and  in  Austria.  He  failed,  however,  to  recognize  the 
fact  that  he  was  now  face  to  face  with  a  veritable  giant,  so  loosely 


l8o     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  Invasion     organized  that  any  blow  which  he  might  deal  in  one  part  of  its 
of  Russia  frame  would  scarcely  be  felt  beyond  the  immediate  surface  with 

which  he  came  in  contact.  With  his  superb  army  of  half  a  mil- 
lion men  he  crossed  the  Russian  frontier  and  marched  straight 
on  to  Moscow.  The  Russian  armies  refused  battle,  falling  back 
before  him  and  laying  waste  the  country  as  they  retreated. 
Napoleon  finally  reached  his  goal,  but  found  that  his  success 
Retreat  had  counted  for  but  little.    The  Russians  not  only  evacuated 

^°°^  the  city  but  set  it  on  fire.    After  spending  some  time  in  fruitless 

i  negotiations  and  finding  no  way  open  to  him  to  bring  the  Rus- 
sians to  terms,  as  the  winter  was  now  coming  on.  Napoleon 
decided  to  retreat.  It  was  already  October  and  700  miles  had 
to  be  covered  before  the  French  army  would  find  itself  again 
upon  friendly  soil.  The  Russian  winter  was  soon  upon  them  in 
all  its  severity.  Then  began  one  of  the  worst  and  most  disas- 
trous retreats  in  history.  Harassed  by  the  Cossack  cavalry, 
benumbed  and  freezing  with  the  cold,  passing  through  a  country 
already  ravaged  by  hostile  armies,  only  a  remnant  of  his  forces 
finally  found  their  way  back  across  the  frontier. 

Meanwhile  Napoleon's  former  enemies  in  the  West  had  not' 
been  idle.  The  Prussian  ministers.  Stein  and  Scharnhorst, 
were  statesmen  of  a  different  stripe  from  their  faint-hearted 
master,  and  they  had  been  busy  preparing  their  country  for 
a  moment  like  this,  when  they  might  engage  in  battle  with 
Napoleon  upon  a  footing  of  equality.  A  new  spirit  had 
The  laid  hold  of  the  Prussian  people.     They  now  began  to  rebel 

o/prussia^°^  against  the  requisitions  made  upon  them  and  upon  their  land 
and  Germany  by  their  couquerors.  Their  spirit  was  shared  by  the  German 
peoples  farther  west.  The  yoke  of  the  conqueror  had  for  some 
time  borne  heavily  upon  them,  and  the  apathy  which  they  had 
shown  heretofore  over  the  changes  in  their  rulers  was  now 
replaced  by  eager  preparations  for  their  expulsion.  This  is  the 
period  made  famous  by  such  outbursts  of  patriotic  ardor  as 
the  poems  of  Arndt  and  inspiring  hymns  like  "What  is  the  Ger- 
man's Fatherland?"     Patriotic  societies,  such  as  the  Burschen- 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  l8l 

schaft,  were  formed  by  the  students  in  the  universities,  who 
pledged  themselves  to  die  for  king  and  fatherland.  Napo- 
leon's hour  had  now  struck.  Western  Europe  arose  under  its 
rulers  as  one  man,  and  Napoleon  soon  after  his  return  from 
Russia  found  himself  confronted  by  the  armies  of  Austria, 
Prussia,  Spain,  and  England.  Thus  began  the  so-called  War 
of  Liberation. 

With  his  characteristic  energy  he  immediately  took  the  field, 
but  he  had  no  such  troops  in  these  new  levies  as  had  followed 
him  into  the  heart  of  Russia.  Nor  was  Napoleon  the  same 
energetic,  resourceful  commander  as  of  yore.  He  showed  more 
irresolution  and  less  of  that  cool  calculation  which  had  secured 
for  him  his  former  successes.  Although  he  was  successful  in 
some  of  the  minor  battles  which  now  followed,  he  met  with  an 
overwhelming  defeat  upon  the  battlefield  of  Leipsic.    This  was  Leipsic,  • 

known  as  the  "battle  of  the  nations, "  and  one  of  the  results  was  of*he^ittoiu»» 
the  carrying  of  the  war  into  French  territory.     For  the  first  time 
in  many   years   invading   armies   camped   upon  French  soil. 
Napoleon  put  forth  superhuman  efforts  to  stem  the  tide,  but 
he  was  finally  forced  to  sign  his  abdication  at  Fontainebleau  Abdication 
and  was  assigned  the  island  of  Elba  as  his  principality  with  the  °^  Napoleon 
title  of  Emperor  and  an  annual  income  of  2,000,000  francs. 
The  exiled  Bourbons  were  immediately  restored  in  the  person 
of  a  younger  brother  of  the  dead  Louis  XVI,  who  took  the  title 
of  Louis  XVIII.     A  general  European  Congress  was  also  called  Congress  of 
to  straighten  out  the  various  tangles  resulting  from  Napoleon's  ^*®"** 
transformation  of  Europe  (The  Congress  of  Vienna). 

81.  The  Hundred  Days  and  Waterloo.  —  Napoleon  was  not 
content  to  settle  down  in  his  new  sovereignty.  Discontent  in 
France  and  reports  of  a  lack  of  harmony  between  the  states 
represented  at  Vienna  seemed  to  present  the  opportunity  for 
which  he  was  waiting.  On  Feb.  25,  181 5,  he  made  his  escape 
to  France,  and  from  the  moment  of  his  landing  he  was  received 
with  the  same  wild  enthusiasm  which  had  marked  his  return 
from  Egypt  years  before.     A  force  of  soldiers  sent  out  to  capture 


1 82      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


him  threw  down  their  arms  at  the  sight  of  the  Little  Corporal, 
as  he  was  affectionately  called,  and  followed  in  his  train.  The 
peasant  population  also  accorded  him  a  warm  welcome.  King 
Louis  XVIII  fled  at  the  news  of  his  reception,  and  again  Europe 
took  up  arms  against  its  former  master. 

The  struggle  was  waged  upon  the  plains  of  Belgium,  and  there 
the  issue  was  decided.     Napoleon's  army  engaged  the  forces  of 
the  EngUsh  and  Prussians  under  the  command  of  Wellington 
Waterloo  and  Blucher  at  Waterloo.     The  battle  raged  from  noon  until 

late  in  the  evening.  The  timely  arrival  of  the  Prussian  army 
upon  the  battle-field  where  the  English  forces  had  long  and 
bravely  borne  the  shock  of  the  French  attack  turned  the  tide 
of  battle,  and  Napoleon  left  Waterloo  a  defeated  and  van- 
quished man.  He  had  played  his  last  card  and  lost.  He  threw 
Exile  to  himself  upon  the  generosity  of  the  Enghsh,  thinking  perhaps  to 

St.  Helena        ^^^  ^  refuge  in  that  land  of  exiles.     He  was  condemned  instead 
to  life  imprisonment  upon  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  and  there 
he  worried  out  his  remaining  years,  dying  on  the  5th  of  May, 
^      1821.  !>^^   • 

82.   The   Congress   of  Vienna   and   the   Reconstruction   of 
Europe.  —  Meanwhile  the  nations  which  had  defeated  Napoleon, 
in  the  persons  of  their  rulers  and  representatives,  were  wrestling 
in  the  Congress  at  Vienna  with  the  problems  involved  in  the 
The  Great         reconstruction  of  Europe.    The  dominant  powers  were  England, 
Powers  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia.    France  also  had  her  representative 

there  in  the  person  of  Talleyrand,  probably  the  most  able  diplo- 
mat of  his  time.     He  had  already  seen  many  years  of  service 
under  various  masters,  including  Napoleon  himself.     Several 
Objects  sought  objccts  wcre  sought  in  the  arrangements  which  were  made. 
The  first  was  to  thoroughly  curb  France  and  to  hold  her  in  check 
by  strengthening  the  states  upon  her  northern  frontiers.    This 
was  accompUshed  by  uniting  Holland  and  Belgium  into  a  single 
Boundaries        State  and  by  establishing  Prussia  again  in  the  control  of  her 
of  France  Rhenish  proviuccs.    The  boundaries  of  France  were  reduced 

to  those  which  she  possessed  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


■83 


tion.  Great  diiEculties  were  encountered  in  adjusting  the 
claims  of  Prussia  and  Austria.  In  settling  their  differences 
the  boundaries  of  the  two  states  were  somewhat  changed 
from  what  they  had  been  in  1789.  The  Prussian  territories 
were   more  consolidated  and  Austria  was  given  more  of  an 


Arrangements 
for  Germany 


On  the  \\'ay  to  St.  Helena 

This  picture  shows  Napoleon  on  the  English  ship  Bellerophon  on  his  way 
to  St.  Helena,  where  he  was  banished  by  the  EngUsh  government  in  1815. 

outlet  upon  the  Adriatic.  The  various  states  of  Germany  were 
brought  together  in  a  loose  confederation  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  Italy  was  again  restored  to 
approximately  the  condition  in  which  it  had  been  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution.  Like  Germany,  it  was  merely  "a  geograph- 
ical expression."  The  hopes  of  a  united  country  which  had  Italy 
been  aroused  in  the  breasts  of  German  patriots  were  cruelly 
shattered.  The  Italians  had  already  experienced  keen  disap- 
pointment when  Napoleon,  at  the  outset  of  his  career,  had 


1 84     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Norway 
and  Sweden 


Colonial 
Changes 


Dissatisfaction 
witli  the  Work 
of  the  Congress 


failed  to  fulfill  their  expectations  of  a  united  kingdom.  These 
arrangements  therefore  did  not  come  home  to  them  with  the 
same  force  as  was  the  case  with  the  people  of  Germany.  The 
two  Scandinavian  states  of  Norway  and  Sweden  were  united 
under  the  king  of  Sweden,  a  step  comparable  to  that  taken  with 
Holland  and  Belgium,  but  not  carried  out  with  the  same  ob- 
ject. Norway  had  been  taken  from  Denmark  as  the  penalty  for 
the  latter's  loyalty  to  Napoleon  and  was  united  with  Sweden 
to  compensate  the  Northern  kingdom  for  the  loss  of  Finland. 
England  received  or  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  certain 
colonial  territories  which  had  been  seized  in  the  long  struggle 
with  France,  notably  Malta,  the  Ionian  Islands,  Cape  Colony, 
Ceylon,  British  Guiana,  and  the  Isle  de  France.  Her  gains 
seemed  quite  inadequate  to  the  sacrifices  which  she  had  made, 
but  are  to  be  explained  partly  by  the  crusade  in  England  against 
the  slave  trade,  which  had  so  gripped  the  people  that  the 
English  representatives  were  instructed  to  secure  certain  agree- 
ments from  the  states  of  Europe  directed  against  this  nefarious 
traffic. 

The  arrangements  made  at  Vienna  were  a  disappointment 
to  those  who  had  contributed  most  to  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon 
—  the  people  themselves.  Entirely  ignored  were  the  aspirations 
of  the  nations  themselves  or  the  liberal  ideas  which  had  been 
spread  broadcast  throughout  Europe  as  the  result  of  the  French 
Revolution.  The  supreme  thought  in  the  minds  of  the  actors 
at  Vienna  was  to  place  Europe  back  where  it  had  been  before  it 
was  inoculated  with  the  terrible  germ  of  revolution.  The  era 
which  opened  marked  therefore  a  decided  reaction  from  the 
progress  which  had  been  so  characteristic  of  the  preceding 
years.  The  territorial  arrangements  of  the  Congress,  however, 
proved  far  more  lasting  than  their  efforts  to  efface  the  remem- 
brance of  the  glorious  days  when  liberty  and  equality  had  been 
the  watchword  of  all  western  Europe.  With  the  exception  of 
the  formation'  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  and  the  German  Empire, 
and  the  separation  of  Belgium  and  Holland,  it  has  been  only 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA 


185 


"2  2      m 


1 86     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

within  our  own  day  that  these  territorial  arrangements  have 
been  seriously  modified. 


SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  Describe  Bonaparte's  life  before  the  Revolution.  2.  Give  an  account 
of  his  services  to  the  Convention  at  Toulon  and  at  Paris.  3.  Make  a  careful 
study  of  Bonaparte's  campaign  in  Italy  in  1796;  in  1800.  4.  State  and 
discuss  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio.  5.  Give  an  account  of  his 
Egyptian  and  Syrian  campaigns.  6.  Describe  the  events  connected  with 
the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire.  7.  Describe  the  constitution  of  the 
Consulate.  8.  Discuss  the  execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghien.  9.  Describe 
the  naval  operations  which  led  to  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  10.  Describe 
the  campaign  of  Austerlitz.  11.  Discuss  Napoleon's  policy  from  1806  to 
1808.  12.  Discuss  the  second  marriage  of  Napoleon.  13.  Describe  the 
War  of  Liberation  in  Germany.  14.  Describe  the  resistance  of  Spain. 
15.   Describe  Napoleon's  life  on  St.  Helena. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  Napoleon's  Liee  before  the  French  Revolution. 

Johnston,  Napoleon,  pp.  i-ii.  Fournier  (Bourne),  Napoleon, 
pp.  1-37.  Fisher,  Napoleon,  pp.  7-22.  Rose,  Life  of  Napo- 
leon I,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-39. 

II.  His  Services  at  Toulon  and  at  Paris. 

Johnston,  pp.    14-25.     Fournier,  pp.  38-60.     Fisher,  pp.  22-8. 
Rose,  Vol.  I,  pp.  40-69. 
III.  Josephine. 

Fournier,  pp.  60-71. 
rV.  The  Italian  Campaign. 

Plunket,    Fall    of     the    Old    Order,     pp.     128-35.      Johnston, 
pp.  27-39.     Fournier,  pp.  72-108.     Fisher,  pp.  28-56.     Rose, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  70-127.    Jeffery,  The  New  Europe,  pp.  49-52. 
V.  Campo  Formio. 

Johnston,    pp.   41-7.      Fournier,    pp.    108-10.      Rose,    Vol.    I, 
pp.  128-58. 
VI.  Egyptian  and  Syrian  Campaigns. 

Johnston,  pp.  47-57.     Fournier,  pp.  1 11-53.     Fisher,  pp.  56-72. 
Rose,  VoL  I,  pp.  159-97.     Plunket,  pp.  141-3. 
VII.  The  Coup  d'£tat  and  the  Consulate. 

Johnston,  pp.  59-78.     Fournier,  pp.   154-88.     Fisher,  pp.  73-97. 
Rose,  Vol.  I,  pp.  198-220,  245-78.     Plunket,  pp.  148-61. 
VIII.  Marengo,  Lun^ville,  and  Amiens. 

Johnston,  pp.  79-87,  111-12.  Fournier,  pp.  188-220.  Fisher,  pp. 
97-1 1 1.    Rose,  Vol.  I,  pp.  221-44,  306-28.    Jeffery,  pp.  57-61. 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  187 

IX.  The  First  Empire  and  its  Organization. 

Johnston,  pp.  88-111.    Foumier,  pp.  221-82.    Fisher,  pp.  119- 
25,  153-68.     Rose,  Vol.  I,  pp.  279-305,  329-56,  412-44. 
X.  War  of  1805. 

Johnston,  pp.  1 11-29.     Fournier,  pp.  283-324.    Fisher,  pp.  119- 
46.    Rose,  Vol.  I,   pp.   445-68;  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-72.     Jeflfery, 
pp.  92-8. 
XI.  War  with  Prussia  and  Russia;  Tilsit. 

Johnston,  pp.  130-47.     Fournier,  pp.  325-90.    Fisher,  pp.  146-53. 
Rose,  Vol.  II,  pp.  73-94,  99-145- 
XII.  The  Continental  System. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  IX,  Napoleon,  pp.  361-89. 

XIII.  The  Empire  at  its  Height. 

Fournier,   pp.   493-535-      Fisher,  pp.   153-68.      Rose,   Vol.  II, 
pp.  192-212. 

XIV.  Campaign  in  Russia. 

Johnston,  pp.  174-87-     Foumier,  pp.  536-79.     Rose,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  213-45.     Plunket,  pp.  202-6.    Jeffery,  pp.  131-6. 
XV.  The  German  War  of  Liberation. 

Johnston,  pp.  189-95.     Fournier,  pp.  580-642.     Rose,  Vol.  II, 
PP-  303-38.     Jeffery,  pp.  136-41. 
XVI.  Waterloo. 

Johnston,  pp.  223-34.     Foumier,  pp.  694-720.     Rose,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  417-71..  Fisher,  pp.  217-38.    Plunket,  pp.  216-30.   Jeffery, 
pp.  145-7. 
XVII.  St.  Helena  and  the  Close  of  Napoleon's  Life. 

Johnston,  pp.   234-7.      Fournier,  pp.  721-43.     Rose,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  472-529- 

Source  Studies 

1.  How  Napoleon  learned  French.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings  in 

Modern  European  History,  Vol.  I,  p.  309. 

2.  Napoleon's  insight  into  character.    Ibid.,  pp.  310-2. 

3.  The  Italian  campaign.     /6ic?.,  pp.  312-6. 

4.  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio.     Ibid.,  pp.  516-8. 

5.  Egyptian  campaign.     Ibid.,  pp.  318-21.    Colby;  Selections  from  the 

Sources  of  EngUsh  History,  pp.  281-3. 

6.  The  Coup  d'Etat.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  322-3. 

7.  Napoleon's  manners  and  traits.    Ibid.,  pp.  324-6. 

8.  Marengo.     Ibid.,  pp.  326-8. 

9.  Treaty  of  LuneviUe.     Ibid.,  pp.  329-32. 

10.  Internal  affairs  in  France  in  1804.    Ibid.,  pp.  334-?- 

11.  Trafalgar.     Tuell  and  Hatch,  Readings  in  EngUsh  History,  pp.  366-9. 

12.  Nelson.     Cheyney,  Readings  in  EngUsh  History,  pp.  655-7. 

13.  Destruction  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I, 

pp.  340-5. 


1 88     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

14.  Continental  system.    Ihid.,  pp.  345-50.     Colby,  pp.  289-92. 

15.  Napoleon's  ideal  of  empire.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  351-2, 

355-6. 

16.  Reforms  in  Prussia.    Ibid.,  pp.  361-5. 

17.  Peninsular  campaign.     Colby,  pp.  292-5. 

18.  Abdication  of  Napoleon.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  366-7. 

19.  Wellington.     Cheyney,  pp.  657-61. 

20.  English  feeling  toward  Napoleon  after  Waterloo.    Ihid.,  pp.  660-2. 

Colby,  pp.  296-8. 

21.  Napoleon  in  exile.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  I,  pp.  368-71. 

22.  Louis  Napoleon's  view  of  Napoleon  I's  ideals.     Robinson  and  Beard, 

Vol.  II,  pp.  84-7. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  On  an  outline  map  of  central  Europe  show  the  territorial  arrange- 
ments in  Italy  before  Napoleon's  conquests,  and  the  campaigns  of  1 796-1805; 
2.  Show  Napoleon's  campaign  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  3.  Show  the  treaty 
adjustments  of  the  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio.  4.  Show  the  territorial  arrange- 
ments of  the  Peace  of  Luneville.  5.  On  an  outline  map  of  Europe  show 
Napoleon's  empire  at  its  widest  extent.  6.  Show  the  territorial  arrange- 
ments after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Napoleon's  campaigns  in  Egypt, 
p.  150.  Napoleon's  campaigns  in  northern  Italy,  p.  150.  Germany  and  Italy 
in  1803,  p.  151.  Germany  and  Italy  in  1806,  p.  151.  Treaty  adjustments  of 
1811-12,  p.  152.  Principal  seats  of  war,  1788-1815,  p.  153.  Napoleon's 
campaign  in  Russia,  p.  153.  Central  Europe  in  181 2,  pp.  154-5.  Europe  in 
1812,  p.  154.  India  and  South  Africa,  1801-12:  Treaty  adjustments,  p.  152. 
The  Waterloo  campaign,  p.  156.      Treaty  adjustments,  1814-5,  p.   157. 

T>ovf,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  Italy,  1798-99,  p.  25.  Europe 
in  1810,  p.  26.  Germany  in  1803,  p.  26.  Germany  in  1806,  p.  26.  Ger- 
many from  1807  to  1809,  p.  26 1.  Italy  in  1806,  p.  26  ^  Europe  after  the 
settlements  of  181 5,  p.  27. 

Muir,  School  Atlas.  Holt.  The  battle-fields  of  northern  Italy,  p.  xvi. 
Plan  of  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  p.  xxiii.  Plan  of  the  battle  of  Austerlitz, 
p.  xii.  British  naval  wars  (Trafalgar),  p.  48;  p.  xxiv.  Plan  of  the  battle  of 
Jena,  p.  xiii.  Europe  under  Napoleon,  1810,  p.  9.  Plan  of  the  battle  of 
Leipzig,  p.  xiii.  Plan  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  p.  xiv.  Europe  in  1815, 
p.  10. 

GsLTdiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  North  Italy  and  Swit- 
zerland, 1 796-1805,  p.  53.  India,  1804,  p.  54.  Central  Europe  to  illustrate 
Napoleon's  campaigns,  p.  55.  Peninsular  War,  p.  56.  Central  and  Western 
Europe,  April  181 2,  p.  57.  Napoleon's  Russian  campaign.  181 2,  p.  58.  Cen- 
tral and  Western  Europe,  1815,  p.  59.    Battle  of  the  Nile,  p.  82.    Battle  of 


THE  NAPOLEONIC  ERA  189 

Trafalgar,  p.  84.    The  Waterloo  Campaign,  p.  85.     The  battle  of  Waterloo 
(two  maps),  86-7. 

Robertson-Bartholomew,  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  Oxford 
Press,  France,  1810,  No.  8.  Germany,  1810,  No.  12.  Prussia,  1807,  No.  14. 
Italy,  18 10,  No.  16.  Ottoman  Empire  and  the  Balkans,  1789-1815,  N0.22. 
The  Baltic,  1 789-1914,  No.  31. 

Bibliography 

Cambridge  Modern  History.    Volume  IX,   Napoleon.     Macmillan. 
Channing.     (The   'American    Nation   Series.)    The    Jefersonian    System. 

Hari>er. 
Cheyney.     Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 
Colby.    Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  History.    Longmans. 
Cross.     History  of  England  and  Greater  Britain.     Macmillan. 
Day.    History  of  Commerce.    Longmans. 
Fisher.    Napoleon.     Holt. 
Foumier.     (Bourne)  Napoleon.    Holt. 
Fyffe.     History  of  Modern  Europe.     Holt. 
Grant.     A  History  of  Europe.     Longmans. 
Hannay.     The  Navy  and  Sea  Power.     Holt. 
Hassall.     The  Making  of  the  British  Empire.     Scribner. 
Hayes.     The  Social  and  Political  History  of  Modern  Europe.     Volume  I. 

Macmillan. 
Henderson.    A  Short  History  of  Germany.    Two  volumes  in  one.    Macmillan. 
Howard.     The  German  Empire.     Macmillan. 
Jeffery.    New  Europe,  lySg-iSSg.    Houghton  Miffin. 
Johnston.    Napoleon.    Holt. 

Plunket.    Fall  of  the  Old  Order.     Oxford  University  Press. 
Priest.    Germany  since  1740.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Readings  in  Modern  European  History.    Volume  I. 

and  II.     Ginn. 
Rose.     The  Life  of  Napoleon  I.    Two  volumes  in  one.     Macmillan. 
Rose.     The  Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  Era.     Putnam. 
Seignobos.    History  of  Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 
Stephens.    Revolutionary  Europe.     Rivingtons. 
Traill.    Social  England.    Volume  V,  Section  II,    pp.  497-SI4,    703-715- 

Putnam. 
Tuell  and  Hatch.     Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 
Van  Bergen.     The  Story  of  Russia.    American  Book  Company. 
Webster.    General  History  of  Commerce.    Ginn. 


The  Open- 
field  System 


Gradual 
Breakdown  of 
the  Manorial 
System: 
Enclosures 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

83.  The  Old  Manorial  System  of  Agriculture  and  its 
Defects.  —  While  the  continent  of  Europe  was  being  trans- 
formed both  socially  and  politically  under  the  influences  of  the 
French  Revolution,  changes  no  less  radical  were  taking  place  in 
England.  At  one  and  the  same  time  agriculture  and  industry 
were  undergoing  changes  which  in  the  course  of  time  were  to 
produce  a  deep  impress  upon  the  life  of  Europe.  Before  the 
eighteenth  century,  agricultural  methods  had  changed  but  little 
since  the  middle  ages,  when  the  lands  of  western  European 
countries  were  divided  into  the  great  manors,  or  estates,  on 
which  the  peasant  cultivated  the  fields  for  the  lords  of  the  manor. 
This  method  of  farming  was  known  as  the  open-field  system. 
The  manor  was  divided  into  strips  of  land,  each,  roughly  speak- 
ing, the  amount  that  a  team  could  plough  in  a  day.  These  strips 
were  divided  one  from  another  by  narrow  grass  paths  called 
balks.  At  first  each  field  was  cultivated  every  year,  but,  as 
this  exhausted  the  soil,  a  system  was  adopted  by  which  two 
fields  were  cultivated  in  any  one  year  and  one  field  lay  fallow. 
The  manors  themselves,  however,  had  disappeared  in  many 
instances.  This  was  essentially  the  case  in  England,  where  the 
feudal  system  disappeared  much  earlier  than  upon  the  continent. 

One  of  the  principal  causes  for  the  breakdown  of  the  manorial 
system  in  England  was  the  growth  of  enclosures.  As  early  as 
the  13th  century,  the  lords  began  the  practice  of  enclosing,  for 
private  hunting  preserves,  and  later  for  sheep  pastures,  all 
pastures  and  woods  not  actually  in  use  by  their  tenants.  Un- 
scrupulous landlords  often  seized  fair  fields  from  their  peasant 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  191 

cultivators  and  evicted  the  latter.  Others  consolidated  their 
holdings  by  exchanging  those  strips  that  lay  far  from  the  manor 
house  for  those  that  lay  nearby.  Nearly  all  these  enclosures 
were  used  as  sheep  pastures.  Towards  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  a  new  kind  of  enclosure  was  in  progress  by 
which  ambitious  farmers  sought  to  improve  the  arable  land.  In 
these  cases  "  convertible  industry,"  as  it  was  called,  took  the 
place  of  the  old  threefold  rotation  of  crops.  Under  this 
system  "pasture  land  was  broken  up  at  intervals  by  the 
plough  and  converted  into  arable,  while  the  existing  arable  was 
rested  as  pasture." 

The  growth  of  enclosures  during  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and   Conditions 
seventeenth  centuries  was  steady.     At  the  beginning  of   the  ^^^^^  Opening 
eighteenth  century  it  is  estimated  that  two  fifths  of  the  arable  Eighteenth 
land  of  England  was  enclosed  and  that  about  half  of  the  total  ^^^^^^ 
area  was  cultivated.     The  remainder  was  still  spread  out  in 
open  fields,  or  in  swamp  land  or  thicket.     On  these  a  large 
number  of  people  dragged  out  a  miserable  existence  by  living 
on  the  produce  of  a  few  cows  or  sheep.    The  lack  of  hedges  or 
fences  in  these  open  fields 
was    detrimental    to    the 
crops,  which  were  too  often 
exposed  to  the  full  sweep  of 
destructive  winds.     Barley 
was  still  the  chief  grain  pro- 
duced, but  oats,  wheat,  and 
rye  were  also  staple  crops.  '5'5^'^^>^       Crops 

No  little  hemp  and  flax  were 

,     ,       ^,  Farm  Implements  of  the  i8th 

grown,  and  when  the  seven-  Century 

teenth  century  closed  a  be- 
ginning had  been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  clover, 
and  turnips.      There  was  already  foreshadowed  that  greater 
knowledge  of  animal  raising  which  characterized  the  agricul-  Fann 
tural  revolution  of  the  eighteenth  century.    The  farm  laborer  ^p^«"«°*« 
had  a  few  implements  which  were  better  than  his  predecessor 


,.Mf^ 


192     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

under  serfdom  had  known,  among  them  the  wheel  plough,  drills 
for  sowing,  and  a  cart  with  very  high  wheels.  Other  imple- 
ments in  use  were  sickles,  scythes,  pitchforks,  rakes,  flails,  and 
spades. 

84.   Improvements  in  Methods  of  Tillage. — In  1733  there 
was  pubHshed  in  England  an  epoch-making  book  on  Husbandry 
jethro  TuU       or  agriculture,  written  by  Jethro  TulL     It  is  said  that  he  so  far 
lost  patience  with  his  hired  help  that  he  set  about  devising  ways 
and  means  of  dispensing  with  their  services  and  replacing  them 
with  various   labor-saving  devices.     Be  that  as  it  may,  his 
suggestions  and  improvements  were  so  well  received  that  he 
has  been  given  the  credit  of  having  improved  agriculture  more 
than  any  other  one  person.     Realizing  that  vegetables  grew 
better  if  the  ground  was  thoroughly  pulverized  before  and  after 
planting  the  seed,  he  devised  a  system  of  drilling  the  seed  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  permit  of  cultivation  between  them 
The  Horse  Hoe  with  a  horse  hoe  or  cultivating  plough.   To  further  this  system  of 
and  Drui  planting  he  invented  a  drill,  or  planting  machine,  which  sowed 

a  field  more  uniformly  than  the  old  method  of  hand-scattering, 
at  the  same  time  using  less  seed  to  the  acre.  Tull's  severe 
criticism  of  the  laziness  and  lack  of  responsibility  shown  by  the 
landlords  of  his  day  undoubtedly  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
change  which  took  place  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  which 
farming  became  the  fashion  for  gentlemen.  Another  was  the 
interest  shown  by  the  Whigs  in  agriculture  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  This  interest  influenced  profoundly  the  political  de- 
velopment of  England  in  the  century  when  the  future  history  of 
English-speaking  peoples  everywhere  was  being  shaped. 
"Turnip"  In  the  same  decade  Charles  Townshend,  a  brother-in-law  of 

Townshend  Walpole,  retired  from  politics  to  his  farm  in  Norfolk  and  began 
the  study  of  scientific  agriculture,  with  such  far-reaching  effects 
upon  that  branch  of  industry  in  England,  that  Arthur  Young, 
another  Englishman  of  a  generation  later,  could  say  "Half  the 
County  of  Norfolk  within  the  memory  of  man  yielded  nothing 
but  sheep  feed,  whereas  those  very  tracts  of  land  are  now  covered 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  193 

with  as  fine  barley  and  rye  as  any  in  the  world,  and  great  quanti- 
ties of  wheat  besides."  His  two  interests  were  the  field  cultiva- 
tion of  turnips  and  an  improved  rotation  of  crops.  He  was  so 
enthusiastic  about  the  former  that  he  was  nicknamed  "Turnip 
Townshend."  He  started  the  Norfolk,  or  four-course  system  of 
rotation  of  crops,  alternating  roots,  grasses,  and  grains,  such  as  Rotation 
turnips,  barley,  clover  and  rye  grass,  and  wheat;  encouraged  °'  ^'°^ 
the  use  of  fertilizers  in  the  soil;  and  adopted  Tull's  system  of 
drilling  and  horse  hoeing  turnips.  Other  landlords  followed 
his  example,  which  resulted  in  a  complete  revolution  in  agricul- 
tural crops,  methods,  and  implements. 

According  to  Arthur  Young,  the  principal  improvements  in  Arthur  Younf 
agriculture  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  a  bet- 
ter knowledge  of  the  rotation  of  crops  in  order  to  increase  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  prevent  its  exhaustion;  the  use  of 
covered  drains  and  the  irrigation  of  meadows;  the  use  of  arti- 
ficial as  well  as  an  increased  use  of  natural  fertilizers;  the  intro- 
duction of  new  food  crops,  as  rye,  beans,  turnips  and  potatoes; 
and  the  invention  of  such  useful  implements  as  the  drill,  the 
horse  hoe,  and  better  harness.  In  1793  Young  was  made 
Secretary  of  the  newly  formed  Board  of  Agriculture,  which 
had  been  estabhshed  by  the  younger  I^itt,  and  his  investiga- 
tions and  writings  did  much  to  further  the  progress  of  this 
industry. 

Side  by  side  with  an  improvement  in  agricultural  products  improvements 
there  went  on  an  important  series  of  investigations  into  the  ^heep^reeding 
production  of  finer  specimens  of  animals.     Robert  Bakewell 
(i 725-1 795)  did  more  to  improve  live-stock  than  any  other  man.   Robert 
He  rejected  the  accepted  theory  that  the  blood  must  be  varied 
by  the  mixture  of  breeds.     Just  as  Luther  Burbank  today  in 
our  own  country  has  produced  some  wonderful  fruits  and  flowers 
by  experimenting  with  the  process  of  reproduction,  so  Bakewell 
mated  the  best  and  sturdiest  animals,  those  possessing  to  the 
fullest  degree  the  quahties  he  wished  to  reproduce  and  intensify 
in  their  offspring,  even  though  closely  related.    In  this  way  he 


BakeweU 


194     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

produced  the  Leicester  breed  of  sheep,  which  in  fifty  years  spread 
over  every  part  of  the  civihzed  world  and  doubled  the  amount 

Sheep  of  mutton  on  the  tables  of  Englishmen.    This  breed  is  described 

as  having  a  clean-cut  head,  broad  and  flat  back,  barrel-shaped 
body,  thin  feet,  flesh  fat,  fine-grained,  and  well-flavored,  heavy 
and  soft  wool,  and  nearly  double  the  weight  of  the  varieties  of 
his  day.     Bakewell  also  improved  the  famous  longhorn  breed 

The  Longhorns  of  COWS  of  the  Midlands.  The  new  longhorn  breed  was  a  very 
heavy  animal  and  a  good  beef  producer,  but  died  out  after  a 
time  because  it  did  not  produce  as  much  milk  as  other  varieties. 
Bakewell's  principles  are  still  accepted  as  sound  in  animal  breed- 
ing and  have  led  to  the  production  of  the  various  "thorough- 
bred "  stocks  of  animals. 

Coke  of  85.   The  Revolution  in  Agriculture.  —  About  the  time  of  the 

American  Revolution,  Coke  of  Holkham  began  his  work  on  an 
estate  where,  as  old  Lady  Townshend  remarked,  "All  you  will 
see  will  be  one  blade  of  grass  and  two  rabbits  fighting  for  that." 
By  adopting  the  methods  of  Tull  and  Townshend  and  by  dis- 
covering the  principle  that  some  grass  seeds  were  better  adapted 
for  certain  kinds  of  soil  than  other  kinds,  he  raised  larger  crops 
and  made  many  pieces  of  what  had  hitherto  been  waste  land 
into  rich  pastures.  He  was  largely  responsible  for  the  increased 
production  of  potatoes  and  for  the  improvement  and  increase 
in  the  varieties  of  grass  seeds.  Following  in  the  footsteps  of 
Bakewell,  he  also  improved  several  species  of  animals.  Through 
his  efforts  2,000,000  acres  of  waste  land  in  England  were  brought 
under  the  plough,  and  no  other  man  was  so  instrumental  in 
rendering  England  self-supporting  during  the  terrible  era  of  war. 

Consolidation  The  improved  methods  of  farming  gave  a  great  stimulus  to 
the  consolidation  of  small  farms  into  large  estates  and  to  the 
enclosure  of  what  had  formerly  been  waste  land,  but  which  was 
now  rendered  productive.  We  have  seen  that  these  improve- 
ments were  largely  the  work  of  rich  land-owners,  such  as  TuU, 
Townshend,  Bakewell,  and  Coke.  Over  3,500,000  acres  were 
enclosed  during  the  eighteenth  century.    Agriculture  became 


of  Small  Farms 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  195 

"capitalistic,"  that  is,  large  amounts  of  capital  and  land  were 
required  for  its  successful  operation.  This  led  to  the  extinction 
of  the  yeoman  or  small  farmer,  who  had  been  the  backbone  of  Disappearance 
English  society  in  former  centuries.  The  classes  of  the  agricul-  ri^°™*° 
tural  population  became  sharply  differentiated  into  landlords, 
tenants,  and  laborers.  The  first  held  great  estates,  consisting 
of  numerous  small  farms  which  had  been  consohdated.  The 
tenants  rented  these  farms  of  the  landlord  and  employed 
laborers  to  cultivate  them.  England  became  a  great  agricultural 
nation  and  thus  was  self-supporting  during  the  long  and  terrible 
wars  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  By  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  landlords  were  the  dominant  force 
in  parliament,  and  by  placing  duties  on  the  importation 
of  foreign  corn  and  bounties  on  the  export  of  EngUsh,  they 
safeguarded  the  interests  of  the  agriculturist.  "Farming  be- 
came the  reigning  taste  of  the  day."  George  III  delighted  in 
the  title  of  Farmer  George  and  wrote  on  agriculture. 

86.   The  Nature  of  the  Industrial  Revolution.  —  Closely  con-  Relation 
nected  with  these  changes  in  agriculture  was  the  so-called  J*he^Revoiution 
Industrial  Revolution.     The  one  was  really  dependent  upon  in  Agriculture 
the  other,  as  a  greater  industrial  population  called  for  a  larger  food  J^'in^gty- 
supply,  and  improved  farm  machinery  made  possible  larger  and 
better  crops  to  meet  this  need.     We  have  seen  that  the  original  The  Domestic 
system  of  manufacture,  in  which  the  workman  owned  the  raw 
material  and  carried  through  all  the  processes  of  his  trade,  had 
been  changed  by  the  introduction  of  the  clothiers  or  merchant 
clothiers  (sec.  17),  who  assembled  a  number  of  workmen  in 
some  one  locality  and  supervised  their  work.     Yet  the  distinc- 
tive feature  of  manufacturing  before  the  invention  of  time-  and 
labor-saving  machines  was  that  all  the  workers  were  obliged  to 
do  a  certain  amount  of  farming  in  the  cultivation  of  their  home 
plots  of  ground.     According  to  Defoe  (sec.  17),  the  workmen  Advantages  of 
under  the  domestic  system  led  fairly  happy  Hves.     Commer-  s^j^m™^^*^*^ 
cial  panics  were  almost  unknown;  work  was  regular;  the  market 
was  steady;  closer  and  more  friendly  relations  prevailed  between 


196     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


employer  and  employee  than  are  usually  found  today;  and, 

while  there  was  less  total  wealth  in 
the  country  and  hence  fewer  of  the 
luxuries  and  conveniences  which  we 
now  have,  in  the  eighteenth  century 
w  the  wealth  was  more  evenly  divided 
among  all  classes.  The  current  of 
life  moved  slower;  people  did  things 
more  leisurely. 

All  this  was  changed  by  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution,  the  name  which  has 
been  given  to  the  tremendous  changes 
wrought  by  new  inventions  and  im- 
proved processes,  the  use  of  steam 
power,  the  perfection  of  the  means 
of  transportation,  and  the  factory 
system,  which  now  replaced  this  do- 
mestic system  with  its  peculiar  ad- 
vantages. There  is  neither  time  nor 
space  to  study  the  inventions  in  all 
fields  of  industry  which  revolution- 
ized production  and  influenced  his- 
tory quite  as  fundamentally  as  the 
work  of  the  statesmen  and  warriors 
of  the  same  era. 

87.  The  Revolution  in  the  Manu- 
facture of  Textiles.  —  The  changes 
in  the  manufacture  of  textiles  will 
illustrate  what  the  industrial  revolu- 
tion meant  in  improved  methods  and 
a  better  product.  The  dawn  of  in- 
vention in  this  line  found  men  mak- 
ing cloth  substantially  as  it  had  been 
made  from  the  most  primitive  times. 

The  earliest  device  for  spinning  was  the  distaff  and  spindle. 


The  Spinning  Wheel 

About  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  the  spinning  wheel 
was  introduced  into  general 
use  in  England.  At  first,  this 
device  for  spinning  was  very 
much  like  the  one  shown  in 
this  illustration.  The  spin- 
ner, seated  in  front,  held  in  his 
lap  a  "bat"  or  roU  of  wool, 
which  had  previously  been 
"carded"  or  combed  out  so 
that  the  fibres  lay  in  the  same 
direction.  He  then  twisted 
the  end  fibres  on  to  the  spin- 
dle (5).  Next  he  turned  the 
wheel  (w)  with  his  hand.  The 
string  or  belt  (6,  b)  caused 
the  spindle  to  revolve  as  the 
wheel  turned,  winding  up  the 
"roving"  or  twisted  fibres. 
With  his  other  hand,  the 
spinner  twisted  the  fibres  out 
of  the  "bat"  to  form  the 
"roving."  In  the  eighteenth 
century,  a  foot  treadle  to 
turn  the  wheel  and  another 
spindle  were  added,  thus  en- 
abling the  spinner  to  twist  two 
threads,  one  with  each  hand. 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


97 


Hargreaves's  Spinning  Jenny 


A  great  step  in  advance  had  been  made  in  very  early  times 
through  the  invention  of  the  spinning  wheel,  in  which  the  spin- 
dle was  rotated  by  a  wheel, 
turned  by  hand  or  by  a 
foot  treadle.  But  with 
this  machine  the  spinning 
process  remained  station- 
ary until  about  1764,  when 
James  Hargreaves  invented 
a  machine  known  as  the 
spinning  jenny,  in  which 
the  wheel  rotated  a  number  of  spindles  simultaneously.  Thus 
by  the  same  operator  at  first  eight  and,  after  improvements  had 
been  made  in  the  machine,  eighty  threads  could  be  spun  at  the 
same  time. 

In  1769  Richard  Arkwright,  an  Enghsh  barber,  patented  a 
machine  containing  two  sets  of  rollers  placed  somewhat  apart 
from  each  other.  One  set  of  rollers  was  rotated  at  a  higher 
speed  than  the  other,  and  as  the  woollen  fibre,  or  roving,  was 

drawn  through  both  sets  of 
rollers,  in  passing  through 
the  swifter  pair  it  was 
stretched  out  to  the  requi- 
site fineness.  Arkwright 
applied  water  power  to 
drive  his  machine  and  thus 
made  it  profitable  to  collect 
together  a  number  of  spin- 
ning machines  in  one  build- 
ing or  factory,  where  that 
power  could  be  more  eco- 
In  this  manner  he  became 
Arkwright's  ma- 


Arkwright's  Spinning  Frame 


nomically  used  to  drive  them  all. 

the  founder  of  the  factory  system  of  industry. 

chine  was  improved  by  .combining  its  essential  features  with 

Hargreaves's  spindle  machine,  or  jenny.    This  invention,  known 


James 
Hargreaves 
and  the  Spin- 
ning Jenny 


Arkwright's 
Water  Frame 


198    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Crompton's 
Mule 


Older  Method 
of  Weaving 


Crompton's  Mule 


Kay's  Shuttle 


as  the  "mule,"  was  invented  by  Crompton  in  1779,  and  super- 
seded Arkwright's  device. 
The  enormously  increased  production  of  thread  was  made 

imperative  because  of  im- 
provements in  the  process  of 
weaving.  Until  1733  cloth 
had  been  woven  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  the  Httle  rugs 
are  woven  everywhere  today 
by  the  children  in  our  elemen- 
tary schools  in  their  courses 
in  manual  training.  The 
process  of  interlacing  the  cross- threads,  or  weft,  between  the 
threads  of  the  warp  was  accomplished  slowly,  with  the  shuttle 
or  needle  held  in  the  hand  of  the  operator.  In  the  year  men- 
tioned a  North  of 
England  weaver 
named  Kay  devised 
an  attachment  to 
the  loom  in  which 
the  shuttle  was 
driven  back  and 
forth  through  the 
warp  by  means  of 
a  lever  controlled 
by  the  operator. 
This  flying  shuttle 
enormously  in- 
creased the  speed 
of  the  weaving 
process  and  so  fur- 
nished a  demand 
for  a  greater  sup- 
ply of  thread.  This  demand  turned  ^e  minds  of  Hargreaves, 
Arwkright,  and  Crompton  toward  the  improvement  of  spin- 


Whitney's  Cotton  Gin 

In  this  first  model  of  the  cotton  gin,  note  the  cyl- 
inder studded  with  nails;  the  teeth  against  which 
these  nails  impinge.  The  power  was  applied  by 
the  crank.  , 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


199 


Power  Loom 


ning,  as  described  above.    As  inventions  in  the  field  of  spinning 
multiplied,    the   production    of    yarn   soon   outdistanced    the 
capacity  of   the  hand-looms   until   1785,  when  a  clergyman 
named  Edmund  Cartwright  patented  a  loom  whose  action  was  Cartwright's 
entirely  automatic  and  driven  by  power. 

Up  to  this  time  the  production  of  cotton  cloth  in  England 
was  meagre,  owing  to  the  high  cost  of  preparing  cotton-wool 
for  spinning.  In  the  cotton 
plant  the  fibres  are  matted 
around  the  seeds,  and  but  five 
pounds  of  the  raw  cotton  could 
be  laboriously  cleaned  of  the 
seeds  in  a  day  by  a  workman. 
In  1792  Eli  Whitney,  a  Con- 
necticut school  teacher,  while 
visiting  in  Georgia  invented  a 
machine,  which  he  named  an 
engine,  or  gin,  for  shredding 
the  fibres  loose  from  the  seeds. 
This  increased  by  two  hundred 
per  cent  the  production  of  the 
raw  material  for  cotton  cloth, 
and  America  now  took  the 
lead  as  the  cotton-producing 
country. 

Prior  to  this  time,  most  of 
the  cotton  cloth  used  in  Europe 
had  been  very  expensive,  as  it 

was  necessary  to  import  it  from  India,  whence  the  name  calicaOj 
or  caHco,  from  the  city  of  Calicut.  French  artisans  had  colored 
the  calico  with  designs  inked  on  by  hand  with  wooden  blocks. 
Before  treating  the  cloth  thus,  it  was  necessary  to  bleach  it  by 
spreading  it  out  on  the  grass,  or  at  least  exposing  it  to  the 
sun's  rays,  for  several  months.  It  was  now  discovered  that  Use  of 
chlorine  would  bleach  the  fabric  in  a  few  days  and  that  the       °*** 


Eli  Whitney 

Eli  Whitney,  the  inventor  of  the 
cotton  gin,  a  Yale  graduate,  spent 
some  time  on  a  cotton  plantation 
on  the  Savannah  River,  where  he  in- 
vented the  cotton  gin.  He  later  re- 
moved to  New  Haven  and  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms. 


200      ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Printing 

by  Machinery 


Charcoal 
Smelting 


Use  of  Coal 


Smeaton's 
Blast  Furnace 


Process 
in  Steel 
Manufacture : 
Darby 


cloth  could  be  printed  by  running  it  through  inked  rollers,  an 
invention  which  was  prophetic  of  our  great  newspaper  presses 
of  today.  For  all  these  reasons  the  production  of  woollen  and 
cotton  fabrics  was  enormously  increased. 

88.  Improvements  in  the  Iron  Industry  and  in  Pottery.  — 
The  iron  industry  was  revolutionized  in  a  similar  manner. 
Before  the  use  of  coal,  iron  smelting  was  accomplished  by 
heating  it  with  charcoal  under  the  blast  from  a  large  bellows 
worked  by  hand.  To  smelt  a  ton  of  iron  required  two  loads 
of  charcoal.  As  each  load  of  charcoal  called  for  two  tons  of 
wood  to  produce  it,  the  smelting  industry  was  limited  .by  the 
wood  supply  and  was  carried  on  at  small  forges  chiefly  in  the 
south  of  England.  Coal  had  been  mined  for  hundreds  of  years, 
but  the  process  of  smelting  by  coal  did  not  become  available 
until  1750. 

In  1760  Smeaton  invented  the  blast  furnace,  in  which  air  is 
forced  into  the  fire  by  a  cylindrical  blower,  instead  of  by  the 
clumsy  bellows,  and  in  1790  steam  power,  another  cause  of  this 
industrial  transformation,  was  applied  to  drive  the  blast.  In 
this  interval  the  production  of  iron  was  quadrupled,  and  a 
process  was  invented  for  working  the  iron  into  bars  by  the  use 
of  rollers  instead  of  forge  hammers.  Wrought  iron  is  tougher 
than  cast  iron  because  the  carbon  and  other  impurities  found 
in  the  latter  have  been  burned  off,  but  it  lacks  the  hardness 
which  makes  it  capable  of  cutting  and  shaping  nearly  every 
other  known  material.  The  discovery  of  such  a  material,  at 
once  able  to  cut  and  shape  itself  as  well,  was  an  important  step 
in  the  progress  of  civilization.  This  material,  steel,  was  known 
and  valued  for  centuries  before  it  became  possible  to  produce 
it  in  sufficient  quantities  for  commercial  purposes.  Steel  was 
first  made  by  heating  wrought  iron  in  contact  with  charcoal 
until  it  had  absorbed  about  one  per  cent  of  carbon.  This  proc- 
ess was  first  attempted  on  a  commercial  scale  by  Darby,  who 
threw  bags  of  nearly  pure  carbon  into  the  molten  iron  and 
stirred  the  mass  until  the  iron  absorbed  the  carbon  and  steel 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


201 


was  produced.  It  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century,  how- 
ever, that  by  the  Bessemer,  and  later  the  Siemens-Martin, 
processes  steel  could  be  produced  at  such  a  low  cost  that  it 
became  the  foundation  metal  for  a  multitude  of  operations. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  great  impetus 
was  also  given  the  china 
and  earthenware  trade. 
This  may  be  credited  in 
large  measure  to  Josiah 
Wedgwood,  who  was  the 
creator  of  English  pot- 
tery as  a  fine  art.  He 
greatly  refined  the  mate- 
rial used  and  invented  a 
beautiful  cream-colored 
porcelain,  which  was 
called  Queen's  Ware  after 
Queen  Charlotte,  who 
aided  the  inventor  and 
made  his  ware  popular. 
Factories  sprang  up  in 
other  parts  of  England, 
and  to  this  day  England 
has  maintained  the  lead- 
ership in  certain  forms 
of  china  and  earthenware. 

89.  The  Steam  Engine 
and  its  Application  to 
Industry.  —  The  discov- 


DlAGRAM  OF  NeWCOMEN'S   EnGINE 

Steam  was  admitted  to  the  cylinder 
through  a  valve  in  the  boiler,  and  the  piston 
was  forced  up.  Then  the  steam  valve  was 
shut  and  a  jet  of  cold  water  was  admitted 
to  the  cylinder  through  another  valve,  con- 
densing the  steam  and  creating  a  vacuum. 
Consequently  the  piston  was  forced  dowTi 
by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  up 
and  down  motion  of  the  piston  raised  and 
lowered  the  pivoted  beam,  which  in  turn 
raised  and  lowered  the  pump. 


ery  that  steam  will  act  as  a  motive  power  has  been  claimed 
by  many  people,  but  the  practical  application  of  steam  to 
a  machine  which  furnished  motive  power  was  not  made  until 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  (1698).  By  the  condensa- 
tion of  steam  in  a  closed  chamber,  a  vacuum  was  produced 
whose  force  was  used  to  raise  water  from  one  level  to  another. 


Josiah 

Wedgwood 


_       Queen's  Ware 


202     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


This  method  was  employed  to  rid  mines  of  water.     In  1705 
Newcomen        Newcomen  improved   upon  this  device  and  thereby  gave  a 

greater  impetus  to  the  mining  industry.    He  made  provision 

for  attaching  the 
upper  portion  of  the 
piston  to  one  end  of  a 
pivoted  beam,  at  the 
other  end  of  which 
was  the  piston  of  a 
pump.  The  up  and 
down  movement  of 
the  piston  of  the  cyl- 
inder gave  a  corre- 
sponding down  and 
up  movement  to  that 
of  the  pump.  (See 
diagram  p.  201.) 

The   next   advance 
was   made   by  James 

Watfs  Engine  Instead  of  leaving  one  end  of  the  cylinder  Watt,  whose  inven- 
tions mark  a  new  era 
in  the  development  of 
steam  power.  Exam- 
ining Newcomen's  en- 
gine, he  was  impressed 
with  the  great  waste 
caused  by  the  neces- 
sity of  cooling  the 
cylinder  after  every 
upward  stroke  in  or- 


DiAGRAM  OF  Watt's  Engine 

Instead  of  leaving  one  end  of  the  cylinder 
open,  as  Newcomen  had  done,  in  order  that  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  might  push  down 
the  piston  head,  Watt  closed  both  ends  of  the 
cylinder.  By  means  of  a  pair  of  steam  and 
exhaust  valves  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder, 
steam  was  automatically  admitted  first  into 
one  end  of  the  cylinder  and  then  into  the  other, 
thus  moving  the  piston  up  and  down.  He 
further  added  the  throttle  valve  t,  for  regulat- 
ing the  rate  of  admission  of  steam,  and  the  re- 
volving balls,  or  governor  g,  to  control  the 
speed  of  the  engine,  thus  making  it  entirely 
automatic  and  insuring  the  regularity  of  its 
motion. 


der  to  condense  the  steam,  and  set  to  work  to  remedy  this. 
Other  important  improvements  made  by  Watt  were  the  gover- 
nor and  the  throttle  valve.  (See  diagram.)  Thus  was  evolved 
the  modern  steam  engine,  with  all  its  essential  parts.  Ark- 
wright  and  other  pioneers  in  the  apphcation  of  power  to  the 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  203 

textile  industries  speedily  realized  the  advantages  of  this  new 
power  producer  and  introduced  the  steam  engine  into  their  fac- 
tories. By  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  steam 
engine  had  come  into  its  own  as  the  king  of  the  industrial 
world. 

90.  The  Revolution  in  Transportation.  — With  the  progress 
of  invention  in  the  industrial  arts  and  the  consequent  growth 
of  commerce,  a  strong  demand  was  felt  for  improvements  in 
methods  of  transportation.  In  England,  as  well  as  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  roads  were  in  a  wretched  condition  until  the 
closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Then,  chiefly  because 
of  the  new  methods  of  road  construction  introduced  by  Telford  Telford 
and  Macadam,  a  great  advance  was  made.  The  Telford  road 
was  named  after  Thomas  Telford,  a  Scottish  civil  engineer 
(1757-1834),  and  consists  of  a  pavement  of  stone  blocks  placed 
on  a  road  bed  and  covered  with  one  or  more  layers  of  broken 
stone.  Telford  constructed  more  than  1000  miles  of  these  roads.  Road-  and 
He  is  famous  also  for  his  bridge  over  the  Severn  and  for  the  ^^^^©-^"iiding 
Caledonian  Canal.  He  built  over  1200  bridges,  the  EUesmere 
Canal  connecting  the  Severn,  Dee,  and  Mersey  Rivers,  and 
improved  many  harbors. 

His  method  of  road-making  was  largely  superseded  by  that 
of  John  Macadam  (i 756-1836),  another  Scotchman,  who  spent 
thirteen  years  of  his  life  as  a  New  York  business  man.  After  his 
return  to  Scotland  he  interested  himself  in  the  subject  of  road- 
making  with  such  success  that  in  1827  he  was  voted  $48,000  by 
parliament  and  appointed  surveyor-general  of  roads.  His 
method  of  road-making  is  familiar  to  all.  The  macadamized  Macadamized 
road  consists  of  layers  of  broken  stone  graded  down  from  a  fine  ^°***^ 
binder  on  the  surface  to  a  lowest  layer  of  two-inch  stone  next  to 
the  earth  below  grade. 

Canals  for  commercial  purposes  had  been  constructed  as  far 
back  as  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain;  but  the 
development  of  canals  in  Great  Britain  was  left  until  this  same 
period.    The  credit  belongs  to  James  Brindley  (1716-1772),  a 


204     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


James  Brindiey  Derbyshire  engineer.    His  first  canal  was  built  in  1761  between 

Catai-buUdin     Worsley  and  Manchester,  and  during  his  Ufetime  he  built  or 

planned  365  miles  of  canals.     These  canals  lowered  the  cost  of 

transportation  at  least  seventy  per  cent  in  the  regions  served  by 

them,  and  as  a  result  a 
steady  supply  of  raw 
material  was  assured  to 
manufacturers,  an  abun- 
dant food  supply  to  their 
laborers,  and  better  fa- 
cilities for  marketing  the 
products  of  the  factory. 
The  credit  for  first  ap- 
plying steam  to  trans- 
portation belongs  to 
America.  The  steam 
engine  had  hardly  been 
applied  as  a  motive 
power  in  manufacturing 
before  Oliver  Evans,  an 
American  inventor,  at- 
tempted to  drive  wag- 
ons and  boats  by 
steam;  and  John  Fitch 
ran  a  steamboat  on 
the  Delaware  in  1788 
at  the  surprising  speed 
of  eight  miles  an  hour. 
The  first  to  make  the  steam  boat  a  commercial  success  was 
Robert  Fulton,  who  in  1807  sailed  the  Clermont  from  New 
York  to  Albany,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  in 
thirty  hours.  The  Clermont  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet 
in  length  and  was  driven  by  paddle  wheels  at  the  sides.  The 
Ocean  Spread  of  this  method  of  transportation  was  very  rapid,  and 

Transportation    ^j^hin  ^  few  years  the  era  of  steam  transportation  on  water 


The  Steamboat 


A  Clipper  Ship 

Clipper  built  ship  of  the  first  half  of  the 

19th  century.     Compare  the  graceful  lines  of 

this  ship  with  the  awkward  construction  of 

the  ships  of  earlier  centuries.    See  Chapter 

n. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


205 


had  fairly  begun.  This  new  method  was  quickly  adopted  in 
England,  which  had  far  outdistanced  this  country  in  its  de- 
velopment of  industry. 

The  ocean-going  ships  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  of  the 
clumsy,  slow  build  used 

for  the  East  India  trade.  *-  '' ' 

It  was  not  until  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  that  the  clipper 
type  of  sailing  vessel 
was  developed.  Al- 
though the  steamboat 
had  been  developed  in 
the  opening  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century, 
it  was  used  chiefly  on 
the  inland  waterways 
and  for  coastwise  trafl&c, 
until  the  construction 
of  iron-hulled  steamers  after  1838.  By  1850  only  about  25 
per  cent  of  ocean  commerce  was  carried  in  iron  steamships. 

The  father  of  the  steam  locomotive  was  an  Englishman, 
George  Stephenson  (1781-1848).  He  constructed  the  first  suc- 
cessful locomotive  in  18 14.  It  was  used  to  haul  coal  nine  miles 
from  the  mine  to  tide  water.  When  a  railroad  was  projected 
between  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  Stephenson  was  placed  in 
charge,  and  the  railroad  was  opened  in  1830  with  the  complete 
triumph  of  his  locomotive.  Rocket,  which,  to  the  surprise  even 
of  its  inventor,  made  a  speed  of  thirty  miles  an  hour.  The 
greater  efficiency  of  the  locomotive  of  our  own  day  is  due  to 
two  factors  :  improvements  in  the  machine  itself  and  improve- 
ments in  the  road  bed. 

The  locomotive  has  greatly  increased  in  size.  The  first 
locomotives  were  hardly  larger  than  hand  cars  and  had  boilers 
about  the  size  of  a  large  barrel.    All  are  familiar  with  the 


A  Modern  Steel  Steamship 


Stephenson  and 
the  LocomotiTe 


2o6      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


RaUroads  huge  locomotives  which  now  drive  the  express  trains.    The  first 

railroads  were  constructed  with  wooden  rails.  These  were 
improved  by  the  addition  of  iron  straps  on  their  upper  sur- 
face.   Then  came  iron,  and  later  steel  rails,  which  have  made 


First  Trip  of  the  DeWitt  Clinton 

This  locomotive,  which  ran  between  Albany  and  Schenectady,  was  similar 
to  the  engines  built  by  Stephenson.  Note  that  the  first  coaches  were  actually 
the  vehicles  formerly  drawn  by  horses.  This  type  of  coach  is  still  represented 
in  the  compartment  coaches  of  Europe.  The  American  coach,  with  a  central 
aisle  and  doors  at  the  end  instead  of  at  the  side  of  the  coach,  gradually 
evolved  on  this  side  of  the  ocean  and  in  a  modified  form  is  gradually  super- 
seding the  older  type  in  Europe. 

possible  the  great  locomotives,   tremendous  trains,  and  the 
rapidity  of  modern  railroad  transportation. 

91.  The  Factory  System  and  its  Effects.  —  Perhaps  the 
most  important  of  the  changes  which  form  a  part  of  the  industrial 
revolution  was  the  establishment  of  the  factory  system.    The 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


207 


Stevens's  Locomotive  and  The  Modern  Locomotive 

John  Stevens  was  the  next  American  after  Fulton  to  develop  the  steam 
engine.  The  upper  picture  shows  his  locomotive  running  over  a  circular 
experimental  track  on  his  estate. 

In  sharp  contrast  to  the  earliest  locomotives  is  the  huge  compound  loco- 
motive of  today. 

factory  system  was  the  result  of  a  new  combination  of  power  and 
men.  At  the  opening  of  the  period  of  warfare  between  England 
and  France  which  closed  with  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  England 
was  mainly  an  agricultural  nation.  EngHshmen  spun  and  wove 
in  their  cottages.  At  the  close  of  the  war  they  were  employed 
in  great  buildings  called  factories  and  were  the  servants  of 


Production 


208     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

machinery  which  was  run  by  steam  or  water  power.  Because 
it  was  cheaper  to  operate  factories  where  a  supply  of  coal  could 
be  cheaply  procured,  industry  was  centred  chiefly  in  the 
north  of  England,  where  the  principal  coal  fields  were  to  be 
found.  Here,  gathered  together  in  large  buildings,  were  persons 
of  every  age  and  both  sexes,  with  no  care  for  their  comfort, 
health,  or  decency.  The  machines  made  to  lessen  the  amount 
of  hand  labor  eventually  greatly  extended  it.  If  the  laborer 
could  not  adapt  himself  to  new  methods,  they  deprived 
him  of  all  means  of  livelihood.  Riots  were  of  ordinary  occur- 
rence in  which  the  less  adaptable  workmen  sought  to  destroy 
these  "iron  men,"  as  they  termed  the  machines,  the  profit  of 
whose  operation  went  almost  entirely  into  the  pockets  of  their 
employers. 
Large  Scale  The.  effects   of    the    introduction   of    the    factory   system 

upon  the  life  of  the  modern  world  are  both  numerous  and  far 
reaching.  Among  the  most  striking  are  the  development  of 
large  scale  production  and  the  division  of  labor.  Large 
scale  production  required  large  amounts  of  capital,  thus 
stimulating  the  growth  of  a  capitalistic  class,  men  with 
means  enough  to  organize  these  great  factories.  They  in 
turn  often  took  the  larger  portion  of  the  wealth  produced  by 
their  employees,  leaving  the  latter  but  a  bare  living  wage. 
Their  tremendous  profits  were  used  in  part  to  develop  the 
factory  system  still  further,  so  that  England  was  able  to 
clothe  Europe  when  the  Napoleonic  wars  were  paralyzing  the 
industries  of  the  continent.  In  the  growth  of  factories  it 
was  speedily  discovered  that  a  minute  division  of  labor  was 
not  only  necessary  but  highly  profitable.  By  this  is  meant 
the  specialization  of  the  workmen  in  some  particular  opera- 
tion; for  example,  in  the  making  of  a  pair  of  shoes,  one  work- 
man cuts  out  the  soles,  another  the  heels,  another  the  uppers, 
another  sews  the  uppers  to  the  soles,  and  another  performs 
some  other  step  in  the  manufacture.  The  results  are  that 
each   workman    becomes    very   skilful    in    his    own    process. 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  209 

much  time  is  saved,  and  in  consequence  the  production  is 
vastly  increased. 

In  the  course  of  time  it  became  evident  that  the  interests  of  1  Separation  of 
the  employer  differed  from  those  of  his  employees.     In  order  to  1  ^Vartui* '^ 
increase  the  profits  the  employer  had  to  keep  down  expenses,  \and  Ubor 
which  often  meant  lowering  wages.     Before  the  coming  of  the 
factory,  when  the  workman  became  dissatisfied  with  one  em- 
ployer he  was  more  free  to  find  employment  for  his  hands  with 
some  other  master  workman.     But  now  the  ownership  of  the 
machinery  by  the  employer  placed  the  workman  almost  entirely 
at  his  mercy.     It  is  true  that  he  might  seek  employment  with 
some  other  owner  of  machinery,  but  it  was  evidently  so  much 
to  the  advantage  of  the  factory  owners  to  keep  wages  low  that  Wages 
the  workman  received  little  encouragement  from  other  owners. 
This  stirred  up  a  feeUng  of  hostiUty  between  capital  and  labor 
which  has  lasted  until  the  present  time.^    The  wealthy  men  of 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  had  been  merchants 
rather  than  manufacturers.     With  the  coming  of  the  factory,  the 
wealthy  employer  gained  a  new  social  prominence  and  poUtical 
position,  which  he  used  to  secure  legislation  favoring  his  class 
at  the  expense  of  the  other  classes  in  EngHsh  society. 

92.  The  Effects  of  the  Industrial  Revolution.  —  It  has  been 
noted  before  that  as  a  result  of  the  abundance  of  the  fuel  supply 
great  manufacturing  towns  began  to  spring  up  in  the  north  of 
England.     These  attracted  laborers  from  all  parts  of  England. 
Formerly  the  mass  of  the  population  had  been  in  the  south;  Redistribation 
after  this  time,  the  balance  changed  so  decisively  that  new  and  po^J^ao^ 
serious   problems   of   representation   in   parHament   appeared. 
Many  of  the  old  towns  decayed,  yet  they  possessed  the  same  PoUticai  Effects 
representation  in  and  continued  to  send  the  same  number  of 
representatives  to  the  House  of  Commons  until  the  passage  of 
the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  (sec.  107),  while  the  thriving  new  cities 
in  the  north  had  no  representation  at  all. 

In  1760  a  contemporary  writer  said  that  he  found  among  the 

1  Some  of  these  effects  will  be  found  discussed  at  length  in  Chapter  XII. 


210    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Degradation  of 
the  Working 
Class 

/ 


Increase 
of  Poverty 

Employment 
of  Women 
and  Children 


Evils  of 
Child  Labor 


country  weavers  "not  a  beggar  or  idle  person."  The  total 
wealth  of  the  country  was  small,  but  there  was  general  comfort. 
While  the  introduction  of  the  factory  increased  the  total  wealth 
of  the  country  tremendously,  poverty  increased  at  almost- the 
same  tremendous  rate.  While  the  population  increased  seventy 
per  cent,  the  cost  of  poor  relief  increased  five  hundred  and  thirty 
per  cent.  This  heavy  burden  was  not  alone  due  to  the  increase 
of  poverty  but  to  wasteful  methods  of  poor  relief. 

The  substitution  of  machinery  for  hand  labor  tended  to  the 
employment  of  large  numbers  of  women  and  children  in  the 
factories.  Not  much  physical  strength  was  required  to  operate 
the  new  machinery,  and  women  and  children  were  often  more 
dexterous  than  men.  Above  all,  their  services  were  cheaper. 
As  a  result  domestic  life  was  disorganized.  A  contemporary 
says,  "The  females  are  wholly  uninstructed  in  domestic  affairs 
requisite  to  make  them  frugal  wives  and  mothers";  and  in  their 
homes  he  found  "filth,  rags,  and  poverty."  When  the  factories 
started  it  was  considered  a  disgrace  for  children  to  work  in  them. 
The  term  "factory  girl"  was  the  most  insulting  that  could 
be  applied  to  a  young  woman,  and  after  she  had  been  employed 
in  a  factory  she  could  never  find  employment  elsewhere.  Not 
until  wages  were  reduced  to  a  starvation  level,  would  the  work- 
men consent  to  the  employment  of  their  wives  and  children. 
The  factory  owners,  therefore,  had  pauper  children  apprenticed 
to  them  and  treated  them  most  inhumanly.  Children  were 
driven  at  their  work  until  they  gave  out  through  exhaustion. 
They  were  worked  sixteen  hours  at  a  stretch,  by  night  and  by 
day.  "In  stench,  in  heated  rooms,  amid  the  constant  whirling 
of  a  thousand  wheels,  little  fingers  and  little  feet  were  kept  in 
ceaseless  action,  forced  into  unnatural  activity  by  blows  from  the 
heavy  hands  and  feet  of  the  merciless  overseer  and  the  infliction 
of  bodily  pain  by  instruments  of  punishment  invented  by  the 
sharpened  ingenuity  of  insatiable  selfishness."  To  prevent  their 
running  away,  irons  were  riveted  upon  their  ankles,  and  they 
were  fed  on  the  coarsest  food  and  put  to  sleep  in  relays  in  beds 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


211 


212     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Instability 
of  Trade 


Supply  and 
Demand 


The  Old  System 
of  Trade 
Regulation 


Beginnings  of 
Free  Trade 


Trade- 
unionism 


which  were  never  cool.  Undoubtedly  these  evils  were  more 
prevalent  in  the  smaller  than  in  the  better  organized  and  larger 
factories. 

Under  the  domestic  system  of  industry  when  vluxuries  were 
only  slightly  used  and  when  the  amount  of  manufactured  goods 
necessary  could  be  easily  ascertained,  there  were  no  periods  of 
under-consumption.  Hence  trade  was  fairly  stable.  With  in- 
creased facilities  for  production,  manufacturers  often  produced 
more  than  the  temporary  demand  would  justify  with  the  hope  of 
extending  their  trade  in  foreign  countries.  As  this  was  a  period 
of  general  European  war,  this  hope  suffered  greatly  at  times  in  its 
fulfilment.  The  manufacturers  found  an  oversupply  on  their 
hands  and  were  forced  to  shut  down  their  factories  at  irregular 
intervals,  throwing  thousands  out  of  work  and  causing  added 
social  distress. 

It  was  the  growth  of  the  factory  system  which  finally  brought 
to  an  end  the  old  system  of  trade  regulation  in  England.  Under 
the  mercantile  policy,  laws  had  been  passed  to  regulate  the 
maritime  trade,  to  stimulate  industry  by  means  of  protective 
tariffs,  and  to  encourage  agriculture  by  the  so-called  Corn  Laws. 
The  latter  had  practically  discouraged  the  importation  of  grain 
by  means  of  prohibitive  duties,  while  at  the  same  time  the  expor- 
tation of  grain  was  rewarded  with  bounties.  The  arguments  of 
Adam  Smith  (sec.  27)  for  a  relaxation  of  this  system  of 
governmental  control  in  favor  of  a  laissez-faire  policy  bore 
fruit  in  the  modification  of  the  Navigation  Acts  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  duties  on  many  imported  raw  materials  and  manu- 
factured goods.  This  free  trade  pohcy  was  initiated  by 
Huskisson  in   1823. 

A  new  problem  was  presented  for  governmental  solution  in 
the  growth  of  trade  unions.  Combinations  of  workmen  for  the 
purpose  of  presenting  a  united  demand  upon  their  employers 
had  been  formed  many  times  in  the  world's  history.  We  find 
in  the  records  of  the  past  concerted  action  by  means  of  strikes  as 
far  back  as  the  building  of  the  pyramids.     Up  to  the  nineteenth 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  213 

century,  because  parliament  was  representative  only  of  the  in- 
fluential and  wealthy  classes,  English  law  had  been  hostile  to 
unions  of  laborers.  In  1800  parliament  passed  a  drastic  law 
declaring  illegal  "all  agreements  between  workmen  for  obtain- 
ing advances  of  wages,  reductions  of  hours  of  labor,  or  any  other 
changes  in  the  conditions  of  work."  Under  the  terms  of  this  law 
many  workmen  were  prosecuted  and  imprisoned.  Yet  unions 
were  formed  in  spite  of  the  law,  and  finally  in  1825  parliament 
passed  laws  permitting  laborers  to  combine  and  to  attempt  to 
better  their  lot.  The  courts,  however,  remained  the  strongholds 
of  the  manufacturers  and  condemned  the  unions  as  conspiracies 
in  restraint  of  trade  until  1871,  when  parliament  expressly 
declared  that  such  restraints  of  trade  should  no  longer  be  re-^<^0/ 
garded  as  criminal.  This  is  the  basic  law  concerning  labor  ^\ 
unions.  By  the  act  of  1875  it  was  declared  that  no  act  com- 
mitted by  a  union  could  be  punished  as  a  crime  unless,  if 
committed  by  an  individual,  the  act  were  criminal. 

93.  Growth  of  Socialism.  —  Another  significant  result  of  the 
introduction  of  the  factory  system  was  the  spread  of  sociaHstic 
doctrines.  Influenced  by  the  teachings  of  Adam  Smith,  Eng-  TheLaissex- 
land,  and  in  turn  the  rest  of  the  modern  world,  had  first  adopted  ^^^  ^°"*^^ 
the  theory  that  the  government  should  adopt  a  "hands-off" 
policy  toward  industry.  This  was  very  satisfactory  to  the 
individualist,  one  who  thinks  that  every  man  is  the  sole  judge 
of  what  is  best  for  him  and  should  be  allowed  to  succeed  or  fail 
in  business  as  a  result  of  his  own  efforts  and  intelligence.  On 
the  other  hand,  even  while  England  was  becoming  a  free  trade 
nation,  she  acknowledged  that  a  certain  amount  of  control 
must  be  exercised  over  conditions  in  the  factories.  In  fact 
there  was  a  constant  and  a  growing  demand  on  the  part  of 
the  people  that  the  government  control  economic  conditions. 
Some  leaders  and  thinkers  even  went  further  and  argued  that 
the  government  should  own  and  operate  all  industries.  These 
people  were  called  socialists  and  were  regarded  by  some  as  The  Socialists 
earnest  workers  after  the  betterment  of  the  world,  by  others 


214     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


The 
Communists 


Fourier 


Saint  Simon 


Owen 


Fabianism 


as  dangerous  agitators  seeking  to  undermine  the  very  founda- 
tions of  society. 

The  early  socialists  pointed  out  that  there  is  a  wide  gulf 
between  the  rich  and  the  poor  and  that  the  inequalities  of  wealth 
and  happiness  were  constantly  becoming  greater.  They  hoped 
to  educate  the  minds  of  men  of  all  classes  so  that  a  better  system 
of  distributing  the  good  things  of  this  life  would  be  peacefully 
adopted.  Among  these  peaceful  socialists  were  several  subordi- 
nate groups.  The  Christian  socialists  argued  that,  the  founder 
of  their  religion  taught  the  brotherhood  of  all  mankind  and  that 
it  was  a  religious  duty  to  further  any  plan  which  might  promote 
this  end.  Others,  called  Communists,  wished  all  property  to 
be  divided  and  held  in  common  for  the  benefit  of  all  mankind. 
Indeed,  many  people  of  today  confuse  all  sociaHstic  doctrine 
with  the  views  of  this  small  group  of  socialists.  Charles  Fourier, 
a  Frenchman,  believed  that  each  man  should  have  whatever 
he  needed.  To  ensure  this  he  proposed  the  formation  of  groups 
of  persons,  called  phalanxes,  with  1800  in  each  group.  Each 
phalanx  was  to  own  all  buildings  and  means  of  production  neces- 
sary for  its  maintenance.  His  ideas  were  carried  to  America, 
and  the  Brook  Farm  Colony  was  formed  by  several  noted  New 
Englanders  to  put  in  practice  this  theory,  but  it  proved  a  failure. 
Another  Frenchman,  Saint  Simon,  believed  that  the  state  should 
control  production  and  give  to  each  man  in  proportion  to  the 
actual  labor  performed.  A  great  English  manufacturer,  Robert 
Owen,  was  inclined  to  favor  the  cooperative  ideas  of  Fourier 
and  spent  several  years  in  an  active  promotion  of  this  idea,  both 
in  England  and  America.  One  form  of  socialism  which  became 
popular  in  England  was  known  as  Fabian  socialism,  so  called 
from  the  hesitating  Roman  general  Fabius,  who  advocated  a 
policy  of  delay  in  the  war  against  Hannibal.  Its  adherents 
believe  in  making  haste  slowly  and  look  to  the  government  to 
cooperate  with  them  in  the  attainment  of  their  aims  by  favorable 
legislation.  The  revolutionary  forms  of  socialism  developed 
much  later  and  will  be  considered  in  their  proper  connection. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  215 

94.  The  Industrial  Revolution  on  the  Continent.  —  Thus  far 
the  course  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  has  been  followed  as  it 
affected  England.  It  remains  to  summarize  briefly  its  course 
upon  the  continent.  It  was  not  until  the  period  that  followed 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon  that  France  passed  from  the  domestic  in  Praac* 
to  the  factory  system.  The  change  was  characterized  by  the 
same  social  convulsion  that  we  have  observed  in  England.  All 
the  evils  of  the  movement,  viz.,  excessive  hours  of  labor,  woman 
and  child  labor,  dangerous  labor  conditions,  and  greed  upon 
the  part  of  the  employers,  were  no  less  in  evidence  in  France 
than  across  the  Channel.  Remedial  legislation  was  exasperat- 
ingly  slow  in  coming,  and  a  French  law  forbade  workmen  to 
form  unions  for  the  purpose  of  bettering  their  condition.  It  is 
not  strange  that  the  laborers  of  France  often  showed  their  hostil- 
ity to  a  government  which  permitted  their  exploitation.  The 
rising  of  the  silk  weavers  of  Lyons  in  1831  is  an  illustration. 
Earning  the  pitiful  wage  of  eighteen  cents  for  a  day  of  fifteen 
to  sixteen  hours,  they  emblazoned  upon  their  banner  the  motto, 
"We  will  live  by  working  or  die  fighting." 

During  the  era  of  Metternich  (1815-1848),  Austria-Hungary  in  Atutria- 
experienced  the  industrial  revolution.     The  evils  common  to  this  ^'»°«"y 
social  upheaval  caused  workmen  out  of  employment  to  drift  to 
Vienna,  Prague,  and  Budapest  and  there  to  constitute  a  dangerous 
and  desperate  city  mob,  embittered  against  the  government  and 
ready  to  join  in  revolutionary  movements.    Austria  and  Ger- 
many remained  behind  France  and  England  in  their  industrial 
development.     Germany,  with  her  large  agricultural  interests  in  Germany 
and  few  large  cities,  did  not  feel  the  pressure  of  the  demand  for 
a  change  in  manufacturing  methods  until  after  the  ideal  of 
German  unity  had  been  implanted  in  German  hearts.     Since 
1866  Germany's  industrial  development  has  increased  by  leaf)S 
and  bounds,  until  today  she  is  the  admiration  and  the  despair 
of  rival  nations. 

Russia,   situated  farther  away  from  progressive   industrial  1 
countries  of  western  Europe  and,  even  more  than  Germany, 


2i6      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

exclusively  an  agricultural  country  of  the  most  primitive  meth- 
ods, did  not  feel  the  effects  of  the  industrial  revolution  until  the 
last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
twentieth  century  that  she  caught  up  in  any  sense  with  her 
In  Japan  western  neighbors.     The  most  startling  change  is  to  be  observed 

in  the  island  empire  of  Japan,  which  has  emerged  from  a  feudal 
and  industrially  primitive  stage  into  the  light  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion almost  within  the  present  generation.  From  the  foregoing 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  change  from  the  domestic  to  the  factory 
system  has  been  developing  from  the  time  of  its  origin  in  Eng- 
land in  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  present  day  with  an  ever- 
increasing  momentum,  spreading  in  waves  of  progress  from  its 
original  home  to  the  farthest  quarters  of  the  globe.  We  can 
neither  prophecy  the  end  of  this  remarkable  social  development, 
nor,  in  our  wildest  dreams,  form  an  adequate  estimate  of  its 
future  possibilities  for  mankind. 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER  REFERENCE 

I.  Describe  the  manorial  system  of  agriculture.  2.  Review  the  condi- 
tion of  the  agricultural  laborer  from  feudal  times  to  the  eighteenth  century. 
3,  Discuss  the  evils  of  the  open-field  system.  4.  What  were  the  farming 
implements  in  use  at  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century?  5.  What  were 
the  characteristics  of  agriculture  in  the  eighteenth  century?  6.  Give  an 
account  of  the  work  of  Arthur  Young.  7.  Discuss  the  condition  of  the  roads 
of  England  during  this  century,  8.  Discuss  the  work  of  Coke  of  HoUdiam. 
9.  Describe  the  agricultural  conditions  during  the  period  from  1793  to  1815, 
and  show  how  they  influenced  the  outcome  of  events.  10.  Describe  the 
construction  and  operation  of  each  of  the  following  inventions:  (a)  the 
"spinning  jenny";  (b)  the  "mule";  (c)  the  "flying  shuttle";  (d)  the  cotton 
gin;  (e)  the  blast  fcimace;  (/)  Watt's  st^am  engine.  11.  Compare  the 
methods  of  road  construction  introduced  by  Telford  and  Macadam  with 
those  employed  by  modern  road  builders.  12.  Describe  the  first  steamboat 
and  compare  its  construction,  capacity,  and  speed  with  modern  river  boats 
like  those  which  ply  on  the  Hudson.  13.  Describe  the  early  locomotives 
and  compare  their  construction,  appearance,  tractile  capacity,  and  speed  with 
modern  locomotives.  14.  Discuss  the  industrial,  social,  and  poUtical  effects 
of  the  introduction  of  the  factory  system.  15.  Discuss  the  advantages  of 
the  division  of  labor.  16.  Discuss  the  present  status  of  the  problems  of 
child  and  woman  labor.     17.   Discuss  the  theories  of  Adam  Smith,  Fourier, 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION  217 

Saint  Simon,  the  Brook  Farm  community,  and  Robert  Owen.  18.  Show 
that  the  term  "  industrial  revolution  "  involves  a  much  broader  social  change 
than  the  word  "  industrial"  implies. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  The  Eve  of  the  Industrml  Revolution. 

Cunningham,  Growth  of  EngUsh  Industry  and  Commerce,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  500-15.     Gibbins,  Industry  in  England,  pp.  143-56.    Toyn- 
bee.  The  Industrial  Revolution,  pp.  38-72.     Cheyney,  Industrial 
and  Social  History  of  England,  pp.  185-9. 
II.  The  Agricultural  Revolution. 

Cunningham,  Vol.  II,  pp.  540-62.  Curtler,  A  Short  History  of 
English  Agriculture,  pp.  148-9,  152-5,  163-78,  190-4,  214-7, 
220-8.  Cheyney,  pp.  183-5,  216-20.  Webster,  General  History 
of  Commerce,  pp.  21 1-4.  Larson,  Short  History  of  England, 
pp.  504-6.  Tickner,  Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England, 
pp.  499-509,  541-8.  Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Volume  I, 
pp.  395-9.  Fordham,  EngUsh  Rural  Life,  pp.  111-17. 
III.  Mining  and  Transportation. 

Cunningham,  Vol.  II,  pp.  526-40,  811-6.  Day,  A  History  of 
Commerce,  pp.  290-301,  302-14.  Cheyney,  pp.  214-6.  Tickner, 
pp.  518-29. 

IV.  The  Industrial  Revolution  and  the  Factory  System. 

Cunningham,  Vol.  II,  pp.  609-57.  Gibbins,  pp.  156-97.  Toynbee, 
pp.  85-93.  Cheyney,  pp.  203-13,  224-8,  235-9.  Webster, 
pp.  215-21.  Larson,  pp.  499-504.  Day,  pp.  280-9.  Hawkes- 
worth,  The  Last  Century  in  Europe,  pp.  16-23.  Tickner,  pp. 
510-8,  530-40,  564-75-     Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  77-82. 

V.  Robert  Owen  and  the  Humanitarian  Movement. 

Cunningham,  Vol.  II,  pp.  745-810.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  206-13,  395.     Cheyney,  pp.  244-60. 

Source  Studies 

1.  Arthur  Young  on  the  conditions  in  agriculture.     Cheyney,  Readings  in 

English  History,  pp.  610-2. 

2.  Hargreaves's  invention  of  the  spinning  jenny.     Robinson  and  Beard, 

Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  Vol.  II,  pp.  45-9- 

3.  Account  of  Cromp ton's  life.     Ibid.,  pp.  49-52. 

4.  Cartwright's  narrative  concerning  the  invention  of  the  power  loom. 

Ibid.,  pp.  52-3. 

5.  The  steam  engine.    Ibid.,  pp.  58-62.     Colby,  Sources  in  English  His- 

tory, pp.  268-70.     Work  of  James  Watt.     Cheyney,  pp.  614-5. 

6.  Fulton's  account  of  the  first  steamboat.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II, 

pp.  406-8. 

7.  The  factory  system.     Ibid.,  pp.  62-7. 


21,8     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

8.  The  mercantile  theory.     Library  of  Original  Sources,  Vol.  VI  (Mun), 

pp.  157-63.     Ibid.  (Adam  Smith),  pp.  399-409. 

9.  The  basis  of  property  is  labor.    Ihid.  (Locke),  pp.  164-71. 

10.  The  rate  of  wages  in  1795.     Colby,  pp.  278-81. 

11.  Louis  Blanc's  labor  program.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  76-8. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

1.  On  outline  maps  of  England  compare  the  geographical  distribution  of 
population  before  and  after  the  industrial  revolution.  Show  the  coal  and 
iron  fields.  Locate  the  principal  manufacturing  towns.  Show  the  location 
of  the  principal  industries.  Show  the  districts  in  which  manufacturing  was 
carried  on  jointly  with  agriculture  in  1750.  Show  the  principal  canals  and 
waterways. 

2.  On  a  map  of  the  world  show  the  principal  lines  of  railroads  and  steam- 
ships. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Industrial  England  since  1750,  p.  162. 
Trade  routes,  p.  179. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  England  before  the  indus- 
trial revolution,  p.  36.     England  after  the  industrial  revolution,  p.  36. 

Gardiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  Industries  of  the  British 
Isles,  p.  64. 

Bibliography 

Cheyney.    Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England. 

Macmillan. 
Cheyney.    Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 
Colby.    Selected  Sources  in  English  History.     Longmans. 
Cunningham.    Growth   of  English   Industry    and    Commerce,  Volume   II. 

Cambridge  University  Press. 
Curtler.    A  Short  History  of  English  Agriculture.    Oxford  University  Press. 
Day.    A  History  of  Commerce.     Longmans. 
Fordham.     English  Rural  Life.     Scribners. 
Gibbins.    Industry  in  England.      Scribners. 
Hawkesworth.     The  Last  Century  in  Europe.    Longmans. 
Hayes,  The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe.     Volimies  I 

and  II.     Macmillan. 
Larson.    Short  History  of  England.     Holt. 
Library  of  Original  Sources.    Volume  VI.    University  Research  Extension 

Co. 
Robinson  and  Beard.    Development  of  Modern  Europe.    Volume  II.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.    Readings  in  Modern  European  History.     Volume  II. 

Ginn. 
Tickner.    Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England.     Longmans. 
Toynbee.     The  Industrial  Revolution.     Longmans. 
Webster.     General  History  of  Commerce.     Ginn. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

METTERNICH  AND  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL 
GOVERNMENT 

95.  Metternich  and  the  Reaction  in  Europe.  —  It  has  al- 
ready been  pointed  out  how  entirely  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
ignored  the  wishes  of  the  peoples  living  within  the  states  whose 
boundaries  they  sought  to  determine.  One  of  the  most  promi- 
nent and  influential  members  of  the  Congress  was  the  Austrian 
Chancellor,  Prince  Metternich.  He  referred  to  himself  as  "  the 
man  of  what  was."  He  claimed,  with  perhaps  little  reason, 
the  credit  for  the  final  settlements  which  were  reached  of  the 
many  perplexing  problems  confronting  the  statesmen  of  Europe 
on  that  occasion.  His  attitude  towards  the  resettlement  of 
Europe  was  typical  of  the  reactionary  forces  which  now  sought 
to  regain  their  sway.  He  had  a  horror  of  anything  which  sa- 
vored of  government  by  the  people  and  sought  to  establish  once  Character 
and  for  all  the  domination  of  the  forces  of  absolutism  and  *ft,^!f**  .  ^ 

of  Metternich 

reaction.  He  was  by  conviction  an  extreme  conservative,  abso- 
lutely rejecting,  individually  and  collectively,  all  the  changes 
which  had  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  French  Revolution. 
He  proposed  to  establish  Europe  upon  so  firm  a  basis  that 
another  upheaval,  such  as  had  characterized  the  closing  years  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  would  be  impossible.  All  the  exiled 
monarchs  were  therefore  restored  —  tyrants  though  they  were  in 
many  instances  —  and  royal  descent  alone  was  accepted  as  the 
condition  entitling  a  man  to  rule  a  country.  This  was  known 
as  the  principle  of  legLtiniacy.  The  various  experiments  which  Legitimacy 
France  had  tried  with  different  constitutions,  ohgarchic,  aristo- 
cratic, or  popular,  were  utterly  ignored.   Like  the  rulers  whom  he 


220    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Prince  Metternich 
The  master  of  European  politics  from  1815  to  1848. 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      221 

had  helped  to  reestablish,  he  "had  learned  nothing  and  forgotten 
nothing." 

When  the  monarchy  was  reestabhshed  in  France  by  the  resto- 
ration of  the  old  Bourbon  line,  the  new  ruler,  Louis  XVIII,  in- 
augurated his  reign  by  granting  a  constitution  known  as  the 
Charter  of  1814.  While  this  recognized  in  a  measure  the  power 
of  the  people,  the  conditions  under  which  it  was  proclaimed  and 
its  very  name  of  charter  were  evidence  enough  to  the  French 
people  that  this  was  not  a  government  resting  upon  the  will  of 
the  majority  but  a  gracious  grant  of  such  powers  as  it  pleased 
the  monarch  to  bestow  upon  his  loyal  subjects.  That  France 
had  gained  by  the  Revolution  was  indicated  by  the  abandonment 
for  the  moment  of  all  efforts  to  restore  the  ancien  regime  with 
all  its  contradictions,  exactions,  and  tyranny.  Peace  and  pros- 
perity were  what  the  French  people  were  now  seeking  —  an 
opportunity  to  recover  from  the  stress  and  strain  of  the  eventful 
period  which  had  just  closed.  They  could  not,  however,  forget 
the  lessons  inculcated  by  the  Revolution  nor  those  great  ideals 
of  liberty  and  equality  which  had  been  the  lodestar  of  so  many 
Frenchmen  during  the  past  quarter  century.  For  this  reason  Relation 
France  was  jealously  watched  by  her  neighbors,  who  feared  J^  g*^"*^* 
the  contagion  of  her  example  and  a  new  outburst  of  her  enthusi- 
asm. The  path  of  her  rulers  was  destined  to  be  a  thorny  one 
if  they  trespassed  too  far  upon  the  rights  of  a  once  sovereign 
people,  and  in  the  great  upheavals  within  her  borders  are  to  be 
seen  for  some  time  to  come  the  time  limits  of  the  great  epochs 
which  marked  the  history  of  Europe. 

The  return  of  the  exiled  Bourbon  rulers  to  Spain  and  to  the  The 
Kingdom  of  Naples  and  of  the  petty  rulers  to  the  small  states 
of  Italy  illustrates  the  conditions  which  prevailed  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  Europe  after  181 5.  These  nilers,  with  great 
unanimity  and  accord,  immediately  wiped  out  every  vestige  of 
the  great  reforms  which  French  rule  had  inaugurated  within 
their  domains,  and  the  epoch  which  was  now  ushered  in  is  one 
of  the  darkest  in  their  history.    Their  zeal  in  bringing  back  the 


222     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Abolition 
of  Reforms 


The  Situation 
in  Central 
Europe 


The  German 
Confederation 


The  Situation 
in  Austria 


old  conditions  knew  no  bounds,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  monarch 
who  ordered  the  uprooting  in  his  botanical  gardens  of  all  plants 
bearing  French  names. 

Although  the  three  hundred  odd  states  which  Napoleon  had 
found  in  Germany  in  the  eighteenth  century  were  not  restored, 
nevertheless  that  dream  of  a  fatherland,  united  and  strong, 
which  had  been  the  inspiration  of  those  young  men  who  had 
taken  up  arms  in  the  War  of  Liberation  (sec.  80)  had  van- 
ished so  completely  that  it  seemed  like  a  beautiful  mirage  in 
the  desert.  The  new  German  Confederation  was  so  organized 
that  it  did  not  hold  out  a  single  ray  of  hope  to  German  patriots 
that  it  would  ever  become  the  nucleus  of  a  powerful  German 
empire.  It  was  composed  of  all  the  German  states,  and  the  rulers 
followed  the  example  of  the  rulers  of  the  South  of  Europe  by 
restoring  many  a  mediaeval  custom  and  practice  which  had  been 
characteristic  of  the  past.  The  great  wave  of  regeneration  which 
had  swept  Germany  for  the  first  time  since  the  days  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  had  apparently  spent  itself  vainly  upon  the 
rocks,  and  the  day  of  her  advent  among  the  nations  of  Europe 
as  their  equal  was  indefinitely  postponed. 

Within  the  Austrian  possessions  reaction  naturally  reigned 
supreme.  The  ruler  sought  to  bring  back  the  practices  of  a 
bygone  generation.  From  his  capital,  Vienna,  came  the  orders 
which  determined  the  course  of  action  of  much  of  the  rest  of 
Europe.  In  the  various  parts  of  this  conglomerate  Empire, 
with  its  mixture  of  creeds  and  races,  the  same  conditions  pre- 
vailed as  in  the  states  whose  policies  Vienna  sought  to  dictate. 
The  one  great  advantage  which  the  Congress  of  Vienna  had 
conferred  upon  Austria  was  the  consolidation  of  her  dominions, 
as  may  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  map. 

96.  The  Tory  Reaction  in  England.  —  Even  in  England  the 
epoch  which  followed  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  was  marked  by 
reactionary  measures  and  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  ruling  class  to 
dominate  the  situation.  The  strain  of  the  struggle  with  Napo- 
leon was  now  felt  as  never  before,  and  the  ruling  class,  although 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT        223 


AUSTRIAN 

POSSESSIONS 

in  1848 


Longitude  16  East from  gO  Grtfiiwieh 


224     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


pretending  to  advocate  a  more  liberal  and  a  more  democratic 
form  of  government  than  that  which  prevailed  upon  the  conti- 
nent, sought  not  only  to  maintain  themselves  in  power  but  to 
take  an  unfair  advantage  of  their  position.  The  price  of  grain, 
or  of  corn  as  it  was  called,  had  been  high  throughout  the  war,  as 
was  to  be  expected  under  the  conditions  which  prevailed.  The 
majority  in  parliament,  which  was  recruited  from  the  country 
squires,  the  -merchants,  and  the  great  manufacturers,  failed  to 
The  Com  Laws  modify  materially  the  notorious  corn  laws  which  had  been 
enacted  in  the  interests  of  the  English  grain  producers,  but 
sought  instead  to  bolster  up  these  prices  even  after  the  war  had 
closed.  Under  these  laws  no  foreign  supply  of  grain  could  be 
sold  in  England  unless  English  grain  was  selling  at  a  certain 
price  in  the  market.  This  price  the  law  definitely  fixed.  The 
change  from  farming  to  industry  in  certain  parts  of  England, 
and  from  the  domestic  system  of  industry  to  the  factory  system 
during  this  period  of  European  upheaval,  aggravated  the  misery 
and  wretchedness  of  the  masses,  who  had  not  as  yet  adjusted 
themselves  to  these  transformations.  The  burden  of  taxation 
was  heavy,  as  England  had  piled  up  a  tremendous  debt,  and 
with  the  high  prices  demanded  for  foodstuffs  thousands  were 
on  the  verge  of  want  and  starvation. 

As  has  so  often  been  the  case,  the  masses  looked  to  the  govern- 
ment to  alleviate  their  distress  and  recognized  perhaps  as  never 
before  the  political  inequalities  which  separated  the  industrial 
classes  from  their  rulers  and  employers.  The  government  was 
in  a  measure  responsible  for  some  of  this  wretchedness,  and  in 
its  denial  of  representation  to  populous  districts  the  majority 
thought  they  detected  the  root  of  all  the  ills  which  threatened 
them.  Monster  meetings  were  held  in  the  manufacturing  towns; 
petitions  were  circulated;  and  protests  began  to  flood  the  coun- 
try against  the  injustices  from  which  the  masses  suffered.  These 
meetings  were  not  always  orderly;  in  some  cases  there  was 
The  rioting.     The  soldiers  were  called  upon  to  disperse  one  of  these 

Massacre  gatherings  in  Manchester,  and  in  a  clash  between  the  soldiers 


Heavy 
Taxation 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      225 

and  the  mob  several  lives  were  sacrificed.  The  government, 
which  had  little  or  no  sympathy  with  these  longings  of  the 
masses,  immediately  took  alarm.  Parhament  suspended  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  and  passed  the  Six  Acts  prohibiting  The  six  Acts 
assemblies,  restricting  the  publication  of  many  of  the  attacks 
upon  the  government,  and  in  other  ways  preventing  an  expres- 
sion of  the  discontent  which  had  been  so  clearly  manifested. 
97.  Metternich  and  the  Holy  Alliance.  —  It  was  a  cardinal 
principle  with  Metternich  and  with  the  reactionaries  whom  he 
represented  not  alone  to  undo  the  work  of  the  Revolution,  but 
to  maintain  the  conditions  which  have  just  been  described. 
Curiously  enough,  the  sentimentalism  of  the  Tsar  of  Russia  was  influence  of 
used  by  Metternich  to  help  accompHsh  this  result.  The  Tsar  *^*  '"■*" 
had  granted  a  fairly  liberal  constitution  to  that  larger  Poland 
to  which  he  had  fallen  heir  by  the  agreements  concluded  at 
Vienna.  Although  his  attitude  was  much  the  same  as  that  of 
the  benevolent  despot,  he  was  prompted  to  grant  these  con- 
cessions out  of  a  certain  sympathy  for  the  national  aspirations  of 
this  portion  of  his  great  empire  and  a  conviction  as  to  his  respon- 
sibilities as  a  Christian  for  the  welfare  of  the  subjects  with  whom 
he  had  been  intrusted.  When  the  sentimental  Lord  of  the 
Russias  proposed  to  the  practical-minded  Metternich  a  Holy 
Alliance  whose  aims  should  be  "to  adopt  no  other  rule  of  con- 
duct than  the  precepts  of  Christianity,  the  precepts  of  justice, 
charity  and  peace,"  and  in  high  sounding  phrases  sought  to 
commit  the  nations  involved  to  a  course  of  conduct  based  upon 
the  great  principles  of  Christianity,  Metternich  welcomed  the 
project  most  enthusiastically,  believing  that  he  could  make  it 
serve  the  particular  object  which  was  uppermost  in  his  mind  — 
the  domination  of  Europe.  The  alliance  was  therefore  concluded 
between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia  (Sep.  26,  1815),  and  al- 
though, to  quote  the  words  of  Metternich,  the  program  was 
"mere  verbiage,"  it  became  a  very  real  force  in  Europe  for  the 
next  generation.  Almost  a  century  later,  in^^ggS,  Europe  was 
similarly  startled  and  astonished  by  a  proposal  which  seemed 


Alliance 


226    ESSENTIALS  IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN    HISTORY 

equally  out  of  harmony  with  the  course  of  Russian  development 
—  the  calling  of  the  first  peace  conference  at  the  Hague.  Almost 
all  the  nations  gave  their  adherence  to  the  Holy  Alliance;  some 
out  of  respect  for  the  Tsar,  others  in  the  belief  that  it  really  did 
not  commit  them  to  anything.  More  effective,  however,  than 
this  grandiose  scheme  was  another  alliance  concluded  Novem- 

The  Quadruple  ber  20,  1815.  This  was  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  composed  of  the 
same  three  countries  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Holy  Alli- 
ance, but  including  England.  This  combination  rather  than  the 
Holy  Alliance  became  the  real  arbiter  of  Europe  in  the  epoch 
which  followed.  England,  however,  would  not  lend  her  aid 
to  the  repressive  measures  which  Metternich  sought  to  put 
into  operation,  and  the  Quadruple  Alliance  became  confused 
with  the  Holy  Alliance.  The  three  members  of  the  former, 
whose  ideas  harmonized,  proceeded  to  enforce  treaties  signed  by 
the  four  powers,  and  became  known  as  the  Holy  Alliance  because 
Metternich  pretended  to  be  acting  in  accordance  with  the  Tsar's 
original  program  for  the  Holy  Alhance.  These  four  great 
powers  had  bound  themselves  to  preserve  the  arrangements 
made  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  and  to  come  together  from  time 
to  time  to  consider  any  questions  of  international  importance 
which  might  arise  in  the  future.  This  so-called  "concert  of  the 
powers  "  sought  to  maintain  the  " concert  of  Europe."  Metter- 
nich, as  has  already  been  indicated,  dominated  the  three  great 
continental  states,  and  almost  from  the  beginning  his  ideas  were 

Intervention  ;  out  of  harmony  with  those  of  England.  "Intervention"  was 
\  the  watchword  of  these  three  powers  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  and 
Vith  Metternich  as  its  watchdog  this  combination  of  great  powers 
exercised  a  careful  scrutiny  into  the  internal  developments  of 
each  state,  detecting  in  every  change  the  symptoms  of  a  revo- 
lution which  might  sweep  all  Europe  and  produce  other  ka- 
leidoscopic changes,  and  endeavoring  to  repress  all  such 
manifestations. 

98.   Struggle    for    Constitutional    Government.  —  The    next 
thirty  years  were  marked  by  vigorous  protests  against  the  Met- 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT    227 

ternich  system  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  by  attempts  to 
secure  the  recognition  of  the  principle  that  the  governed  are  en- 
titled to  a  share  in  the  government  —  a  recognition  which  should 
take  the  form  of  the  grant  of  a  constitution.    There  were  also 
protests  in  many  quarters  against  the  failure  to  recognize  the 
principle  of  nationaUty.  I  Nationalities  were  ignored  to  the  same  The  Principle 
extent  as  marked  the  Napoleonic  regime,  and  the  unioiljdf  Bel-  °'  N*"o»^ty 
/  j  gium  and  Holland,  the  joining  together  (^Norway  and  Sweden, 
//  /  tWf  rule  of  Austria  in  Italy,  the  failure  to  interfere  with  the 
f/f  Turkish  control  of  the   Christian  states  in  the  Balkan^he 
I    formation  of  the  German  Confederation,  and  many  other  cir- 
j  cumstances  of  a  similar  character,  gave  rise  to  bitter  heart- 
I  burnings  and  caused  Europe  to  seethe  with  discontent.     From 
time  to  time  the  molten  mass  below  burst  its  barriers  and 
.spread  consternation  among  the  conservative  element  which 
was  straining  every  nerve  to  suppress  it. 

Three  important  movements  mark  the  period:  that  of 
1820-22,  that  of  1830,  and  that  of  1848.^  Each  represents  a 
vigorous  protest,  each  more  vigorous  than  the  one  before  it, 
until  1848  is  reached,  a  date  marking  a  general  upheaval  in 
which  the  edifice  so  skilfully  reared  by  Metternich  began  to 
tumble  about  his  ears.  In  spite  of  these  disturbances  of  '20,  The  Revo- 
'30,  and  '48,  which  have  been  styled  revolutions,  after  they  1^0°  and  ^"48 
were  all  over  the  general  condition  of  Europe  remained  much 
as  it  was  in  181 5.  It  was  a  period  of  bitter  disappointment,  a 
time  of  hopes  entertained  only  to  be  blasted.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  France  and  England,  conservatism  seemed  triumphant 
everywhere,  and  every  effort  of  democracy  to  secure  recognition 
seemed  foredoomed  to  failure.  Individual  trenches  had  been 
taken,  but  the  citadel  was  still  unconquered. 

The  Revolution  of  1820-22  was  confined  largely  to  the  ex-,  The  Revoiu- 
tremities  of  Europe,  to  the  Latin  South,  and  began  in  Spain'  g°^j^^°^"°^ 
and  Portugal.     In  Spain  King  Ferdinand's  tyranny  had  be-  portugai 
come  unbearable,  and  this  fact,  combined  with  successful  move- 
ments for  independence  in  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  and  * 


228     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


The  "Constitu- 
tion of  1812  " 


The  Wars  for 
Independence 
in  the  Spanish 
Colonies 


Central  America,  gave  the  signal  for  an  uprising  at  home. 
The  Spanish  soldiers,  who  had  been  mobilized  at  one  of  the 
ports  preparatory  to  setting  sail  to  recover  these  colonies,  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt  with  a  demand  for  "  the  Constitution  of 
1812,"  a  liberal  form  of  government  which  had  been  drawn  up 

in  the  course  of  the  expulsion 
of  the  French  from  the  penin- 
sula, but  which  had  been  with- 
drawn with  the  restoration  of 
Ferdinand  VII.  A  mob  sur- 
rounded the  palace  at  Madrid 
and  forced  the  king  to  take  the 
oath  to  the  constitution. 

The  disturbances  in  Span- 
ish America  date  back  to  the 
days  of  Napoleon's  domination 
when  the  hold  of  Spain  upon 
her  American  colonies,  none  too 
strong  at  best,  was  seriously 
weakened.     During  this  period 

ofgSdpLXanfw^LTducatS    these  peoples    took  advantage 

Spain. 


Bolivar 


in  Madrid,  Spain.  He  visited  Paris 
during  the  dosing  days  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  doubtless  received 
from  Napoleon  the  inspiration  to 
great  military  exploits.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Venezuela  in  1809  he  soon 
joined  the  revolutionary  movement 


of  the  disorder  at  home  and 
declared  their  independence  of 
the  mother  country.  Bolivar 
was  the  great  hero  in  South 
America,  but  he  had  his  imi- 


and  became  the  greatest  general  and  ^^^^.^^  throughout  the  entire 
statesman  South  America  has  yet  pro-  ^^^^^  ^^^^^S^^^^^  ^^^  ^^"^^ 
duced.   He  freed  Venezuela,  Colom-    territory    under    the    Spanish 

^i^i:>::f^&Z^'^^  flag.  The  Central  American 
from  Spanish  rule,  and  all  the  states    states  declared  their  indepen- 

Id  SyhistoA"'''' ''"'""''""   denceand  joined  to  form  the 

Repubhc  of  the  United  States 
of  Central  America.  In  Mexico  the  standard  of  rebellion  was 
set  up  under  Hidalgo  (18 10).  Iturbide  achieved  the  final  ex- 
pulsion of  the  'Spaniards,  only  to  set  himself  up  as  emperor. 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      229 

He  was  overthrown  however,  and  in  1822  the  republic  was 
established.  One  after  the  other  these  colonies  succeeded  in 
overturning  completely  the  rule  of  the  mother  country.  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  Spain,  Portugal  also  demanded  and  ob- 
tained a  liberal  constitution  from  her  ruler  in  1822.  In  the 
same  year  her  colony  of  Brazil  was  proclaimed  an  independent 
Empire  under  Dom  Pedro  I. 

The  people  of  the  south  of  Italy,  stimulated  perhaps  by  the  The  Upri«inj 
news  of  these  revolts  and  driven  to  exasperation  by  the  tyranny  ^°  l^^ 
of  another  Ferdinand,  took  up  arms  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples 
and  forced  their  ruler  to  grant  them  the  same  constitution  which 
was  demanded  by  the  Spaniards.  There  were  also  disturbances 
in  distant  Greece,  which  had  long  groaned  under  the  yoke  of  the 
infidel  Turk.  The  progress  of  the  movement  there  is  a  phase 
of  the  near  Eastern  question  and  will  be  considered  later. 

99.   Unrest  in  Germany  and  the  Doctrine  of  Intervention.  — 
Meanwhile,  although  Northern  and  Central  Europe  made  no     ' 
appeal  to  the  sword,  certain  developments  in  Germany  seemed 
to  augur  inauspiciously  for  the  preservation  of  the  arrangements 
made  at  Vienna.     Great  political  activity  was  shown  among 
the  young  men  in  the  universities.     Patriotic  societies,  such 
as  the  Burschenschaft,  had  been  formed  during  the  War  of 
Liberation  (sec.  80),  and  many  of  these  now  set  themselves 
to  the  task  of  keeping  alive  and  strengthening  those  aspirations 
for  union  which  had  met  with  such  a  sad  fate  in  1 8 1 5 .    A  meeting 
of  representatives  of  these  societies  from  all  over  Germany  was 
held  on  the  Wartburg  in  1817  to  commemorate  the  300th  anni-  The  Wartbn^ 
versary  of  the  Reformation .     In  the  celebration  which  followed  c*^«*»"**°" 
patriotic  speeches  were  delivered ;  some  of  the  reactionary  litera- 
ture of  the  time  was  burned;  and  in  general  a  spirit  of  hostility 
was  shown  to  the  existing  order.     The  university  professors  had 
all  along  shown  themselves  most  outspoken  against  the  condi- 
tions which  prevailed  in  Germany,  and  when,  in  March  1819,  a 
zealous  student  named  Sand  murdered  Kotzebue,  an  agent  of  Murder 
the  Tsar  appointed  to  watch  for  symptoms  of  unrest  and  report  °^  Kot"»>»e 


230     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Carlsbad 
Decrees 


ill 


Congresses 
of  Laibach 
and  Verona 


Opposition 
to  the  Holy 
Alliance 


George 
Canning  and 
the  Origin  of 
the  Monroe 
Doctrine 


them  to  his  august  master,  it  seemed  to  Metternich  and  to  his 
supporters  that  the  time  had  come  for  vigorous  action. 

Intervention  seemed  the  best  method  of  handhng  all  these 
situations.  Metternich  called  a  meeting  of  the  King  of  Prussia 
and  interested  princes  of  Germany  at  Carlsbad  in  August,  1819, 
and  persuaded  them  that  their  own  safety  demanded  strong 
measures  against  this  freedom  of  thought  and  expression  so  rife 
among  their  subjects.  They  agreed,  therefore,  to  the  Carlsbad 
Decrees,  which  committed  them  to  the  enforcement  of  a  strict 
censorship  over  the  press  and  a  close  supervision  of  the  uni- 
versities. 

Metternich  had  scarcely  finished  with  this  business  when  the 
revolutions  broke  out  in  Spain  and  Naples,  and  to  deal  with  these 
situations  he  called  his  confederates  together  in  congresses 
which  met  at  Troppau,  then  at  Laibach,  and  later  at  Verona. 
Upon  the  petition  of  the  King  of  Naples,  who  repented  of  his 
compliance  with  the  demands  of  his  subjects  now  that  assistance 
jseemed  near,  the  Congress  of  Laibach  despatched  Austrian 
troops  to  restore  the  old  order  in  the  ItaHan  peninsula.  At 
Verona  arrangements  were  made  for  sending  a  French  force 
into  Spain  to  help  the  other  Ferdinand.  As  a  result,  condi- 
tions worse  if  anything  than  those  known  in  181 5  marked  the 
years  which  immediately  followed. 

The  idea  of  intervention,  which  was  one  of  the  cardinal  prin- 
ciples of  the  Metternich  system,  —  the  right  to  interfere  in  the 
domestic  affairs  of  another  state  —  had  already  experienced  a 
severe  setback.  It  was  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  states  which 
made  up  the  Holy  Alliance  to  recover  for  Spain  her  lost  territories 
in  America,  but  England  and  the  United  States  helped  to  frus- 
trate this  move.  England  had  all  along  been  lukewarm  toward 
the  schemes  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  The  actual  break  came  when 
George  Canning  became  foreign  minister.  He  was  one  of  Eng- 
land's foremost  statesmen  and  dared  to  proclaim  to  the  world 
the  rights  of  nations  and  England's  opposition  to  any  form  of 
intervention.     He  declared  that  *'  the  independence  of  the 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      231 

Spanish  colonies  was  an  accomplished  fact "  and  in  1824 
signed  a  commercial  treaty  with  the  Argentine  Confederation 
and  the  following  year  despatched  charges  d'affaires  to  the 
Spanish  American  republics.  In  1824  President  Monroe,  pos- 
sibly at  the  suggestion  of  Canning,  proclaimed  to  the  world 
the  doctrine  since  known  by  his  name  —  that  the  Americas 
were  ''henceforth  not  to  be  considered  subjects  for  future 
colonization  by  any  European  powers";  that  the  United  States 
would  regard  as  an  unfriendly  act  any  effort  either  then  or  in 
the  distant  future  to  alter  the  existing  arrangements.  Spain 
was  too  weak  to  act  upon  her  own  behalf,  and  this  clear  state- 
ment of  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  saved  the  newly 
created  republics  from  European  intervention.  The  outspoken 
hostility  of  England  showed  unmistakably  also  the  difficulty  of 
maintaining  "the  concert  of  Europe"  by  a  "concert  of  the 
powers. " 

100.  The  July  Revolution  and  its  Effects.  —  Meanwhile 
matters  had  been  going  from  bad  to  worse  in  France,  the 
mother  of  revolution  and  the  source  of  so  many  of  the  ideas 
which  were  fermenting  in  the  minds  of  Hberals  all  over  Europe. 
The  Royalists  opposed  Louis  XVIII  in  all  his  efforts  to  recognize, 
be  it  ever  so  slightly,  the  work  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  finally 
forced  to  bow  to  the  reactionary  platform  of  the  party  known  as 
the  Ultras  or  Ultra  Royalists,  led  by  his  younger  brother,  the 
Count  of  Artois,  who  was  the  next  heir  to  the  throne.  Al- 
though the  charter  was  not  withdrawn  in  his  reign,  it  began  to 
be  enforced  in  a  narrowly  restrictive  sense  through  the  power 
wielded  by  the  Ultras.  They  sought  the  restoration  of  the 
ancien  regime,  and,  when  their  leader  ascended  the  throne  in 
1824  as  Charles  X,  the  outlook  was  dark  indeed  for  the  sup- 
porters of  the  charter  and  the  friends  of  democracy.  France 
seemed  no  longer  a  beacon  hght  to  the  nations  of  Europe 
when  in  1823  French  troops  were  sent  to  suppress  the  Revolution 
in  Spain.  Although  the  government  machinery  was  fast  falling 
under  the  control  of  King  Charles  and  his  supporters,  a  vigorous 


232    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


opposition  to  his  measures  manifested  itself  outside  the  walls 
of  the  legislative  chamber  in  the  attacks  of  the  journahsts. 
Such  a  spirit  of  unrest  developed  that  the  king  in  July,  1830, 
issued  a  series  of  ordinances  by  which  the  charter  was 
seriously  modified  and  the  franchise  narrowly  restricted  and 
regulated.  These  "July  Ordinances"  also  fettered  the  free- 
dom of  the  press  by  new  and  severe  regulations.  This  action 
was  the  signal  for  a  vigorous  protest  on  the  part  of  the 
journalists,  which  was  followed  by  an  uprising  of  the  people 
of  Paris.  Charles  X,  despairing  of  his  ability  to  retain  the 
crown,  finally  decided  to  abdicate  and  fled  with  his  family  to 
England.  In  this  turn  of  events  La  Fayette  again  came  to  the 
fore  and  helped  to  estabhsh  a  government.  Although  there 
were  demands  for  a  restoration  of  the  Repubhc,  voiced  princi- 
pally by  the  working  classes,  the  leaders,  who  came  from  the 
middle  class  or  bourgeoisie,  were  fearful  of  the  consequences  of 
such  a  radical  step  and  wanted  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  be 
their  ruler. 

That  the  people  were  still  under  the  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution  was  apparent  in  a  proclamation  which  appeared 
pointing  out  how  the  Duke  of  Orleans  "had  carried  the  tricolor 
under  fire  at  Valmy  and  at  Jemappes  and  had  been  devoted 
to  the  Revolutionary  cause."  Declaring  that  the  charter  would 
now  be  a  reality,  he  was  proclaimed  king  with  the  title  of  Louis 
Philippe.  Possibly  mindful  of  the  Revolution  of  1688  in  Eng- 
land, a  parliamentary  body  had  first  gone  over  the  charter, 
making  needed  changes,  and  had  submitted  it  to  the  new  ruler 
for  his  adherence.  By  this  act  it  became  a  veritable  constitution 
and  the  new  reign  ushered  in  a  period  of  parliamentary  rule 
comparable  in  many  respects  to  that  which  marked  the  reign  of 
William  and  Mary  in  England.  Louis  Philippe  was  a  kinsman 
of  the  Bourbons,  but  he  rejected  any  claim  which  he  might 
have  to  the  succession  by  his  title  of  King  of  the  French  instead 
of  King  of  France.  His  accession  began  the  rule  of  the  Orleans 
dynasty.     The  part  played  by  the  middle  classes  in  the  estab- 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      233 

lishment  of  this  Orleans  monarchy  caused  the  name  of  bour- 
geois to  be  attached  to  it,  and  Louis  Philippe  prided  himself 
upon  being  a  bourgeois  king. 

The  July  Revolution  was  the  signal  for  movements  in  other   Spread  of  t 
parts  of   Europe,  notably  in   Belgium,    Poland,   and    Italy.   J"'yR«'oi» 


Louis  Philippe  Entering  Paris  after  the  Rexolution  of  1530 

Portions  of  the  barricades  erected  by  the  mob  for  street  fighting  may  be 
seen  to  the  right. 

Outside  of  Belgium  these  movements  were  everjnvhere  marked 
by  failure,  and  the  demands  for  constitutional  government  were 
speedily  stifled.    In  Belgium  the  people  succeeded  in  bringing  Revolution 
about  its  separation  from  Holland  and  the  establishment  of  a  ^  B^^ium 
parliamentary  government  under  the  rule  of  Leopold  I.    This 


234     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

result  was  not  attained  without  a  struggle.  The  action  of 
France  and  England  in  recognizing  the  new  arrangements 
assured  its  permanence  (Conference  of  London,  1830).  The 
northern  and  central  portions  of   the  Itahan  peninsula  were 


The  Return  from  St.  Helena 

1  King  Louis  Philippe  entered  into  negotiations  with  England  and  secured 
Ithe  return  of  Napoleon's  body  to  Paris,  where  it  now  rests  beneath  the 
dome  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  in  a  magnificent  sarcophagus.  This  picture 
jportrays  the  passage  of  the  casket  down  the  Champs  Elys6es  in  Paris. 

shaken  by  revolutionary  movements  in  1830,  but  Austrian 
interference  speedily  put  an  end  to  all  hopes  of  the  realization 
of  a  new  order.  The  Polish  Revolution  was  marked  by  a 
heroism  which  only  made  the  outcome  all  the  more  sad  for  all 
friends  of  Polish  nationality.     For  a  long  time  secret  societies 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      235 

had  been  planning  for  a  more  complete  autonomy.  The 
watchword  now  was  "Let  us  imitate  the  Parisians;  let  us  do 
Hke  France."  ''All  or  nothing"  was  the  cry.  But  they  were 
no  match  for  the  resources  of  the  Tsar,  and  the  constitution 
granted  by  Tsar  Alexander  was  suppressed.  "There  was  no 
longer  either  kingdom  or  army;  the  work  of  Alexander  and 
that  of  Constantine  were  alike  annulled." 

101.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  France.  —  By  this  time  The  industrial 
those  economic  changes  which  were  peculiar  to  the  history  of  the  ^*y*""o" 
British  Isles  between  1750  and  1815,  and  which  have  been  called 
the  Industrial  Revolution,  had  already  made  their  appearance 
upon  the  continent.  Both  as  First  Consul  and  as  Emperor, 
Napoleon  had  shown  an  interest  in  the  remarkable  development 
of  industry  across  the  channel  as  the  result  of  the  new  inven- 
tions and  improved  processes  and  had  sought  to  encourage 
manufacturing  at  home.  Many  of  these  efforts,  however,  had 
been  sacrificed  in  the  interests  of  his  vigorous  foreign  policy, 
and  it  was  not  until  after  his  overthrow  that  France  began  to 
turn  to  industry.  By  1830  the  working  classes  were  beginning 
to  feel  their  power  and  to  realize,  as  had  the  English  working- 
men  before  them,  their  political  inferiority.  This  feeling  was 
largely  the  result  of  their  exploitation  at  the  hands  of  the  capi- 
talist or  employing  classes.  Their  wages  were  low  and  their  em- 
ployers seemed  to  be  getting  the  lion's  share  of  the  fruits  of  their 
toil.  Their  ancient  trade  guilds  had  been  broken  up  by  laws 
enacted  during  the  French  Revolution  and  they  were  now  denied 
the  right  to  organize,  which  was  another  handicap  in  dealing  with 
their  employers.  Even  before  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe, 
socialism  had  appeared  holding  out  a  program  of  betterment  for 
the  worker.  The  various  reform  programs  suggested  had  little 
effect  in  uniting  the  workers,  who  were  becoming  more  numerous 
and  more  dissatisfied  as  time  passed.  All  this  was  changed  ideas  of 
about  1840  with  the  appearance  of  Louis  Blanc.  He  insisted 
that  the  state  must  be  "  the  banker  of  the  poor  "  and  that  the  gov- 
ernment should  furnish  the  necessary  money  for  the  workers 


Louis  Blanc 


236     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

by  the  establishment  in  each  industry  of  social  workshops  where 
the  laborers  should  direct  their  own  labor  and  in  addition  to  their 
wages  should  share  in  the  proceeds.  The  advent  of  Louis  Blanc 
marked  the  formation  of  the  Socialist  Party,  which  came  to  play 
an  important  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848. 

Causes  of  The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  if  it  did  not  actually 

S^i848°^'^**°'*  begin  in  France,  received  its  impetus  largely  from  developments 
there.     In  spite  of  the  honesty  of  the  bourgeois  king,  Louis 

The  Bourgeois  Philippe,  who  has  been  pictured  as  standing  before  the  shop 
onarc  y  windows  of  Paris  with  an  umbrella  tucked  under  his  arm,  the 

government  of  France  was  conducted  in  the  interests  of  the 
minority.  It  was  a  parliamentary  government,  but  it  very 
much  resembled  the  government  of  England  in  181 5  in  its  fail- 
ure to  represent  the  masses.  The  introduction  of  steam  and 
the  accompanying  revolution  in  transportation  which  followed 
the  use  of  the  steamboat  and  the  railroad  still  further  aggravated 
•  the  lot  of  the  wage  earner  as  industry  developed  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  The  Socialist  Party  became  increasingly  active.  Side 
by  side  with  this  element  was  to  be  found  a  republican  party, 
advocating  a  more  direct  participation  of  the  masses  in  the  affairs 
of  the  government.  The  attitude  of  the  French  king  resem- 
bled that  of  George  III  of  England,  as  he  sought  to  impose 
his  own  ideas  upon  the  country  by  a  clever  manipulation  of 
the  party  system.  Both  king  and  ministers  ignored  the  various 
demands  for  reform  which  were  daily  becoming  more  and 
more  insistent.     A  typical  illustration  of   this  attitude  is  to 

Guizot  be   seen   in   the   career  of   Guizot,  Louis   Philippe's   greatest 

minister,  who  labored  earnestly  to  block  all  change  and  pre- 
serve the  constitution  as  it  had  been  drawn  up  in  1830.  Al- 
though above  bribery  and  corruption  himself,  he  showed  little 
hesitation  in  employing  means  of  this  sort  to  maintain  him- 
self in  power.  Votes  were  secured  for  government  measures 
by  a  judicious  distribution  of  offices  and  favors,  so  that  the 
way  seemed  absolutely  closed  to  peaceful  reform.  Things 
might  have  gone  on  in  this  way  indefinitely  had  it  not  been  for 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      237 

the  interference  of  the  government  with  certain  banquets  at 
which  the  grievances  of  the  people  were  being  aired  by  enter- 
prising journaUsts  and  reformers.     For  some  time  back  there  had 
seemed  to  be  Uttle  about  the  government  to  commend  it  to 
Frenchmen,  and  when  it  sought  to  interfere  with  a  compara- 
tively innocent  means  of  voicing  the  existing  unrest,  it  drove  its 
critics  to  more  aggressive  forms  of  action.    When  the  minister,  The 
therefore,  forbade  the  holding  of  a  larger  banquet  than  usual,   ^**^«'»«*» 
which  had  been  called  for  February  22,  1848,  and  troops  were 
called  out  to  clear  the  streets  of  the  crowds  which  had  collected, 
rioting  became  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  bolder  spirits  soon 
secured  the  upper  hand,  erecting  barricades  and  shouting  de- 
fiance at  the  minister  and  king.     So  unstable  did  the  govern-  Overthrow  of 
ment  prove  itself  in  this  crisis  that  within  the  space  of  three  ^*  Monarchy 
days  it  had  been  entirely  swept  away  and  in  its  place  a  re- 
public had  been  set  up,  presided  over  by  the  repubhcans  and 
the  followers  of  Louis  Blanc.     The  provisional  government  im- 
mediately put  into  operation  a  part  of  the  program  of  the  great 
socialist  leader  by  establishing  national  workshops.     The  ex- 
periment failed,  but  this  failure  and  the  events  which  accom- 
panied it  form  a  part  of  the  story  of   the  rise  of  the  new  • 
Napoleon  which  will  be  told  later. 

102.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Germany.  —  AH  Europe  was 
now  profoundly  stirred  by  revolutionary  movements.  These 
manifested  themselves  in  the  very  strongholds  of  absolutism 
and  repression,  and  shook  them  to  their  very  foundations.  In 
Germany  the  movement  had  two  objects  in  view  and  its  progress 
there  followed  two  distinct  lines.  Like  the  earlier  outbursts  of  Objects  Sought 
1820  and  1830,  it  was  in  part  a  demand  for  constitutional  guaran-  ^  Germany 
tees  against  that  tyranny  and  indifference  to  popular  rights  so 
characteristic  of  many  of  the  rulers  of  the  German  states  and 
principalities.  On  the  other  hand  it  represented  the  beginning  of 
that  sense  of  unity  which  knit  together  those  of  German  birth. 

In  many  cases  the  rulers  yielded  readily  to  the  demands  for 
constitutions,  and  no  blood  was  shed.    The  small  states  were  the 


238     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Revolution 
in  Prussia 


The  Prussian 
Constitution 


Parliament 
of  Frankfort 


first  to  be  affected;  it  was  not  until  March  that  Prussia  felt  the 
force  of  the  reform  movement.  King  Frederick  William  IV 
rather  prided  himself  that  his  hold  upon  his  faithful "  Berliners  " 
was  so  strong  that  nothing  could  come  of  the  unrest  which 
now  manifested  itself  in  his  capital.  He  willingly  conceded  the 
liberty  of  the  press  which  the  people  demanded  but  was  ready 
to  stop  there.  He  soon  found,  however,  that  the  revolutionary 
movement  had  taken  too  deep  a  root  to  be  checked  by  conces- 
sions of  this  sort,  and  on  the  eighteenth  of  Mairch  he  was  con- 
fronted by  a  serious  uprising  in  the  streets  of  the  capital. 
Although  the  soldiers  triumphed  in  the  fighting  which  followed, 
the  king  bowed  before  the  storm  and  not  only  promised  a  consti- 
tution of  a  most  liberal  character,  but  proclaimed  his  willingness 
to  further  by  every  means  in  his  power  the  unification  of  Ger- 
many under  Prussian  leadership.  When  the  delegates  assem- 
bled to  remodel  the  government  along  democratic  lines,  serious 
differences  arose  between  them  and  the  king  and  after  a  six 
months'  session  they  were  dissolved.  The  king  and  his  min- 
isters then  prepared  a  constitution  which,  although  liberal  in 
some  particulars,  still  preserved  many  divine  right  features. 
"In  Prussia,"  he  declared,  "it  is  necessary  that  the  king 
govern  and  I  rule  because  it  is  God's  command." 

While  these  events  were  taking  place  in  Prussia,  represen- 
tatives from  all  over  Germany  were  laboring  in  the  city  of  Frank- 
fort to  realize  the  long-cherished  ideal  of  a  united  Fatherland. 
This  goal,  toward  which  so  many  patriotic  souls  had  been  striv- 
ing for  years,  seemed  now  about  to  be  attained.  The  elite  of 
Germany,  from  the  standpoint  of  learning  and  culture,  now 
came  together  as  the  result  of  a  summons  issued  by  a  little 
group  which  met  in  Heidelberg  and  undertook  to  decide  upon 
the  form  of  union  which  should  usher  in  this  new  Germany. 
Unfortunately,  differences  soon  arose  in  this  erudite  assembly 
and  precious  months  were  wasted  in  fruitless  discussions  which 
led  to  nothing  in  the  form  of  definite  accomplishment.  One 
of  the  most  difficult  problems  before  them  was  that  presented 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      239 

by  Austria.  What  should  the  new  Germany  include?  Should 
it  embrace  Austria  with  its  varied  interests  and  its  diverse  races 
or  should  only  the  German  portion  of  the  Austrian  Empire  be 
allowed  to  participate ;  or  again,  should  Austria  be  excluded  alto- 
gether, as  a  state  having  little  in  common  with  the  new  Ger- 
many? With  the  reform  wave  at  its  height  in  the  smaller  states 
and  with  Austria  and  Prussia  preoccupied  with  the  revolutionary 
movements  within  their  own  borders,  the  future  looked  promis- 
ing indeed  for  the  success  of  the  work  of  the  Parliament  had  the 
ideas  of  these  patriots  been  crystallized  into  speedy  action. 
The  Parliament  of  Frankfort  showed  a  dearth  of  men  of  action ; 
it  was  primarily  a  group  of  thinkers  and  .theorists,  ranging  all 
the  way  from  the  advocates  of  a  republic  to  the  upholders  of 
monarchy.  The  reform  wave  soon  spent  itself  in  the  smaller 
states  and  was  succeeded  by  the  inevitable  reaction.  The  rulers 
realized  that  this  movement  had  its  origin  with  the  people  and 
not  with  themselves  and  began  to  look  askance  at  projects 
which  did  not  have  the  sanction  of  the  established  authorities. 
When  the  assembly  decided  to  exclude  Austria  altogether  from 
the  proposed  union  and  when  Austria  and  Prussia  alike  found 
themselves  free  to  act  in  Germany  proper,  the  tide  began  to  Offer  of  the 
turn.  By  this  time  the  delegates  had  decided  upon  a  form  of  ^f°p^ll^^^ 
government  for  united  Germany  and  had  agreed  to  offer  the 
ruler  of  Prussia  the  title  of  Emperor.  Frederick  William  shared 
with  many  of  the  German  princes  the  distrust,  already  referred 
to,  of  a  government  founded  upon  the  will  of  the  people  and 
refused  the  proffered  crown.  This  was  a  great  blow  to  the  move- 
ment, and  when  Austria  entered  her  protest  against  a  plan  of 
union  from  which  she  was  altogether  excluded,  the  doom  of  the 
project  was  sealed. 

Its  more  ardent  supporters  did  not  abandon  the  idea  without 
a  struggle  and  blood  was  shed  in  a  vain,  hopeless  effort  to 
achieve  the  impossible.  King  Frederick  William  was  now  foolish 
enough  to  think  that  he  could  attain  the  same  result  through 
the  cooperation  of  the  princes  of  the  states  concerned,  but  oppo- 


240     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

sition  among  their  number,  which  had  the  support  of  Austria, 
also  brought  this  attempt  to  naught.  "  In  Hesse  Cassel  the 
armies  of  Austria  and  Prussia  stood  face  to  face  in  hostile  array 
and  hovered  on  the  brink  of  war.  Instead  of  leaving  the  deci- 
sion to  the  settlement  of  arms  a  conference  was  held  between 
Humiliation  representatives  of  the  two  governments  at  Olmiitz  and  Frederick 
""  ^  -  .y         William  was  forced  to  drain  to  the  dregs  the  cup  of  humiliation 


Reproduction  of  a  Medal  Honoring  Kossuth 

An  event  connected  with  the  Revolution  of  1848  in  Hun- 
gary was  the  visit  of  Louis  Kossuth,  the  Hungarian  patriot 
leader,  to  the  United  States  in  an  effort  to  secure  American 
intervention  in  behalf  of  Hungary.  This  medal  was  struck  off 
in  honor  of  his  visit.    The  inscription  reads, 

"Louis  Kossuth,  the  Washington  of  Hungary. 

"  Now  in  the  name  of  eternal  truth  and  by  all  that  is  sacred 
and  dear  to  man  since  the  history  of  mankind  is  recorded,  there 
has  been  no  cause  more  just  than  the  cause  of  Hungaria." 

and  to  renounce  for  the  moment  all  his  pretensions  to  German 
leadership.  The  Confederation  was  restored  in  the  form  in 
which  it  had  been  constituted  at  Vienna.  A  decade  and  more 
was  to  elapse  before  Prussia  recovered  the  prestige  which  she 
lost  on  this  fateful  occasion. 

103.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Austria.^  —  The  Revolu- 
tionary movements  of  1848  saw  the  overthrow  of  the  Austrian 
Chancellor  Metternich,  the  one  person  who  more  than  any  other 
seemed  to  symbolize  all  the  forces  of  reaction  so  characteristic 
of  the  period.  There  was  perhaps  no  part  of  Europe  so  severely 
Centres  of  shaken  by  these  movements  as  the  dominions  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg.  Several  distinct  centres  may  be  clearly  recognized 
^  See  map  on  p.  223. 


the  Movement 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT     241 


where  these  outbreaks  threatened  to  be  most  disastrous  to  its 
sway:  namely,  in  Austria  proper,  in  the  city  of  Vienna;  in 
Prague,  the  capital  of  Bohemia;  in  Hungary;  and  in  Northern 
Italy,  The  news  of  the  February  Revolution  in  Paris  was  the 
signal  in  Vienna  for  a  general 
uprising  on  the  part  of  the  stu- 
dents and  workingmen,  who 
called  for  the  dismissal  of  Met- 
ternich  and  even  sought  his 
life.  The  government  promptly 
yielded  and  the  quondam  dic- 
tator of  Europe  was  forced  to 
flee  for  his  life,  finding  a  haven 
with  Louis  Philippe  in  England, 
that  Mecca  of  political  exiles. 
At  the  same  time  Yenetj^juid 
Lombardy  threw  off  the  Aus- 
trian yoke  and  sought  incor- 
poration with  Sardinia  in  a 
united    Italy;    and    the    Hun-  Francis  Joseph 

garians.  believing  the  time  ripe  ..h^LIXfe'ttf^rrms  of  ts 
for  the  enjoyment  of  a  larger  jwith  the  European  War  of  the  pres- 
measure  of  local  independence,  /  ^^  S^^^^^  ^oi^- 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  The  Serbs  in  the  south  and  the 
Czechs  in  the  north,  especially  in  Bohemia,  demanded  recog- 
nition of  their  nationality  and  local  self-government,  and 
the  whole  empire  seemed  ablaze  with  the  fires  of  revolution. 
The  failure  of  these  different  nationalities  to  cooperate  and  the 
jealousy  which  made  them  ready  to  sacrifice  each  other  for  an 
individual  advantage,  finally  proved  the  salvation  of  the  empire 
as  a  whole.  Although  the  struggle  was  of  the  most  stubborn 
character  in  some  of  the  states  involved,  the  ruler  regained  his 
authority.  One  great  change  marked  the  period,  the  abdica- 
tion of  the  weak  incompetent  ruler  and  the  accession  of  Fran- 
cis Joseph,  the  ruler  of  the  Dual  Empire  until  iqi6. 


Fall 

of  Metternlch 


Lack  of 
Cooperation 


Accession  of 
Francis  Joseph 


242      ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

104.  The  Revolutionary  Movement  in  Italy.  —  The  events 
which  took  place  in  Italy  in  1848  can  be  best  understood  and 
appreciated  by  a  glance  backward  over  the  years  which  immedi- 
ately preceded  this  great  crisis.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the 
Italian  peninsula,  in  utter  disregard  of  its  geographical  unity 
and  its  glorious  past,  had  been  treated  as  a  collection  of  inde- 
pendent states  destitute  of  any  feeling  of  nationality  and  bound 
Italy  by  no  ties  of  common  interest.^   The  barriers  which  the  Congress 

after  1816         ^£  yjgjjjja^  sought  to  establish  between  these  states  soon  proved 
to  be  of  the  most  artificial  character,  and  the  thirty  years  and 
more  which  had  now  passed  since  1815  had  witnessed  the  forma- 
tion of  two  societies  with  branches  throughout  the  entire  penin- 
sula.   These  strove  to  realize,  each  in  its  own  fashion,  the 
ambitions  of  all  ItaHan  patriots  —  a  united  country,  free  from 
The  Carbonari   the  sway  of  the  hated  foreigner.     The  Carbonari  was  the  first 
it°i    °^^^         ^^  these  societies,  but  the  organization  was  secret  in  character 
and  possessed  few  leaders  of  power  and  insight.     The  society 
of  Young  Italy  gradually  took  its  place,  an  organization  which 
was  largely  the  result  of  the  activity  and  zeal  of  a  pure-minded 
Mazzini  Italian  patriot,  Mazzini,  who  was  possessed  heart  and  soul  of 

this  one  ideal,  a  new,  regenerated  Italy.  He  believed  that  this 
result  could  best  be  attained  by  a  campaign  of  education  and 
sought  through  pamphlet  and  press  to  prepare  .the  younger 
generation  for  the  work  before  them  and  to  inspire  them  with 
his  own  lofty  ideals.  There  was  perhaps  a  great  deal  that 
was  visionary  and  impractical  in  his  program.  He  was  look- 
ing forward  to  the  establishment  of  a  republic.  •  While  others 
shared  his  hope  of  a  united  country,  they  differed  radically  as 
'  to  the  form  of  government  best  suited  to  accomplish  their  pur- 

pose. Although  the  spirit  of  nationality  was  strongly  manifested 
throughout  the  peninsula,  it  was  perhaps  difficult  to  put  it  to 
good  use  on  account  of  the  conflicting  opinions  which  prevailed 
as  to  ways  and  means  and  the  results  desired.  The  election  of 
Pope  Pius  IX    Pope  Pius  IX  in  1846  aroused  the  hope  among  many  Italians  that 

^  See  map  on  p.  269. 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      243 

he  might  place  hmiself  at  the  head  of  a  movement  to  unite  Italy, 
as  his  accession  to  power  was  marked  by  a  series  of  reforms 
which  were  in  striking  contrast  to  the  order  of  things  which  had 
heretofore  prevailed  in  the  states  of  the  church.  He  even 
went  so  far  as  to  trust  the  laity  with  important  details  of  the 
administration.  This  was  the  situation  in  the  peninsula  when 
Europe  was  swept  by  the  Revolution  of  1848. 

What  happened  is  a  tangled  skein  to  unravel.  In  the  indi- 
vidual states  the  demand  was  voiced  for  more  liberal  forms  of 
government  and  the  pressure  upon  the  rulers  was  so  great  that 
for  the  moment -there  was  a  general  yielding  all  along  the  line. 
The  new  pope  soon  showed  how  little  reliance  could  be  placed 
upon  the  leadership  of  the  church;  in  fact,  its  very  organization 
and  claims  to  power  tied  the  hands  of  its  supreme  head  in  a 
movement  of  this  character.  But  the  divided  interests  of 
Austria,  whose  occupation  of  northern  Italy  was  perhaps  the 
most  serious  obstacle  to  union,  was  too  good  an  opportunty  to 
be  neglected,  and  the  ruler  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert,  offered  Leadership 
himself  as  the  leader  of  the  movement  to  expel  Austria  and  to 
consolidate  Italy.  The  states  of  the  north,  and  even  the  pop>e, 
appeared  willing  to  fall  into  line  and  supply  the  necessary 
troops.  Charles  Albert,  therefore,  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  his  own  forces  and  was  successful  in  wresting  a  few  victories 
from  the  Austrians,  but  the  effort  was  doomed  to  failure.  The 
aid  promised  was  not  forthcoming;  the  pope  repented  himself  of 
his  rash  resolve;  and  Austria,  fortunately  for  herself,  was 
possessed  of  an  able  general  in  Italy,  Radetzky.  He  had  first 
taken  refuge  in  the  powerfully  fortified  area  in  the  north, 
bounded  by  the  cities  of  Peschiera,  Verona,  Mantua,  and 
Legnano,  known  as  the  Quadrilateral,  and  was  soon  in  a  position 
to  inflict  a  severe  defeat  upon  Charles  Albert  at  Custozza. 

What  followed  throughout  Italy  did  not  augur  well  for  any 
permanent  results.   A  republic  was  set  up  in  Venice;  another  in  The  New 
Rome.    In  the  latter  the  radical  element  seemed  to  dominate  *«!»»"*«• 
and  the  party  of  reform  went  much  farther  than  the  people  were 


244     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


prepared  to  support  them.  It  was  only  a  matter  of  time  before 
both  of  these  movements  entirely  collapsed. 

The  Sardinian  ruler,  although  much  disheartened  by  the 
setback  at  Custozza,  made  yet  another  effort  to  dislodge  the 
Austrians  from  the  north,  but  suffered  so  decisive  a  reverse  upon 
the  field  of  Novara  in  1849  that  he  not  only  abandoned  his 
efforts  but  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II, 
who  immediately  set  to  work  to  recover  what  he  could  from 
the  wreck  and  ruin  of  his  family's  fortunes.  He  was  allowed 
to  retain  his  ancestral  possessions,  but  the  victory  at  Novara 
marked  what  appeared  to  be  the  end  of  all  plans  for  a  kingdom 
of  Italy.  In  the  southern  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  important 
concessions  had  been  secured  by  the  people  at  the  moment  when 
the  revolutionary  movement  threatened  to  sweep  everything 
before  it,  but  when  their  king,  Ferdinand,  saw  that  the  tide  was 
turning,  he  repudiated  these  and  again  ruled  in  the  same  tyran- 
nical fashion  as  of  yore. 

105.  Results  of  the  Revolution  of  1848.  —  Although  dis- 
appointment and  failure  seemed  to  be  the  lot  of  these  efforts  on 
the  part  of  the  people  to  break  away  from  the  oppressive  system 
which  had  been  imposed  upon  them,  the  year  1848  ushered  in  a 
new  epoch  which  was  not  like  the  old.  A  new  day  was  dawning 
for  these  advocates  of  popular  rights  and  these  defenders  of  the 
principle  of  nationality  against  the  upholders  of  divine  right 
and  legitimacy.  Proofs  of  this  were  not  lacking  to  discerning 
eyes,  even  though  to  many  the  outlook  after  the  Revolution  of 
1848  was  most  discouraging.  The  fall  of  Metternich,  the 
great  bulwark  of  the  system,  the  grant  of  constitutions,  the 
reawakening  of  France  and  the  impetus  which  she  gave  to 
liberal  movements  everywhere,  the  fall  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
with  its  meddlesome  poHcy  of  intervention,  finally  the  unrest 
itself,  were  one  and  all  symptoms  of  that  dawning  consciousness 
of  a  new  order  where  the  relations  of  peoples  to  each  other  and 
of  government  and  governed  were  to  be  regulated  on  terms 
which  savored  of  that  liberty  and  equality  for  which  the  patriots 


STRUGGLE   FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      245 

of  the  French  Revolution  had  once  sacrificed  their  lives  and 
treasure. 

106.  Recognition  of  the  Rights  of  the  People  in  England.  -- 
In  this  same  interval  from  181 5  to  1848  a  progress  had  been 
attained  across  the  channel  which  was  of  a  most  encouraging 


Costumes  of  Men  and  Women,  1814  to  1824 

nature  for  those  who  felt  the  existing  order  to  be  contrary  to 
every  principle  of  right  and  justice.  The  people  of  the  British 
Isles  received  a  recognition  which,  although  somewhat  tardy 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  development  of  England,  still 
served  as  an  example  to  her  neighbors  upon  the  continent.  The 
Industrial  Revolution  had  by  this  time  made  such  headway  in 
the  land  of  its  birth  that  the  inequaUties  between  man  and  man 
were  nowhere  more  apparent,  and  nowhere  did  the  people  realize 
to  such  an  extent  the  inadequacy  of  the  government  to  meet 
the  entirely  new  order  of  society  consequent  upon  large-scale 
production.    The  unrest  which  marked  the  period  following  the 


246     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Act  of 
Union.  1800 


Daniel 
O'Connell 


Catholic 
Emancipation 


Napoleonic  wars  has  already  been  described.  It  was  not  until 
about  1830  that,  under  the  influence  of  the  movement  upon 
the  continent,  the  government  began  to  remove  some  of  the 
political  barriers  which  separated  the  classes  of  people  form- 
ing the  population  of  the  British  Isles. 

The  first  reforms  were  directed  at  certain  survivals  of  the 
period  when  religious  intolerance  reigned  supreme.  The  laws 
against  the  Catholics  were  still  harsh  and  exacting.  Although 
they  had  been  granted  freedom  of  worship,  they  still  labored 
under  the  disadvantage  of  being  disqualified  from  holding  any 
public  offices.  By  the  Irish  Act  of  Union,  which  united  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  in  1800,  these  political  disabilities  had  been 
still  further  accentuated,  as  the  younger  Pitt  had  promised,  but 
failed  to  secure,  their  entire  removal  in  return  for  the  support 
of  the  measure  by  the  Irish  Catholics.  It  was  the  political 
unrest  in  Ireland  which  finally  brought  this  question  before 
parliament  in  such  a  way  as  to  call  for  immediate  action. 
Daniel  O'Connell,  a  great  orator  and  Irish  patriot,  led  the 
fight  for  the  removal  of  these  restrictions  upon  Catholics  as 
to  office-holding.  He  showed  the  Irish  as  never  before  the 
value  of  cooperation.  An  organization  known  as  the  Catholic 
Association  was  formed,  with  the  object  of  removing  the  dis- 
abihties  resting  upon  the  Catholic  population  of  the  island. 
His  efforts  were  so  successful  in  arousing  his  own  countrymen 
to  action  that  the  ministry  of  the  great  Duke  of  Wellington, 
fearful  of  civil  war,  was  finally  forced  to  advocate  relief 
measures  and  to  insist  upon  the  passage  of  the  CathoHc  Eman- 
cipation Act.  O'Connell  had  brought  the  question  to  an  issue 
by  standing  for  election  as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons from  the  county  of  Clare.  He  carried  the  election  easily 
and  demanded  his  seat.  The  Tories,  who  were  then  in  power 
and  had  stood  out  against  the  measure,  saw  the  futihty  of 
further  opposition,  and  in  1.829  the  act  was  passed.  By  its  terms 
Catholics  were  admitted  to  all  public  offices  with  the  exception 
of  the  Lord  Lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  the  Chancellorship,  and  the 


and  Corporatloa 
Acts 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      247 

office  of  Regent.  The  Wellington  ministry  had  already  repealed 
the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  (1828)  by  which  the  taking  of  the  Repeal  of  Te«t 
sacrament  according  to  the  form  prescribed  by  the  Church  of 
England  was  required  as  a  qualification  for  office-holding.  The 
ministry  had  yielded  on  this  point;  not,  however,  without  first 
opposing  these  acts  and  being  accused  of  a  sad  display  of  weak- 
ness. Some  one  has  said  of  Wellington:  ''he  treated  pdlitics  as 
if  they  were  military  campaigns,  and  when  beaten  out  of  his 
position  did  not  throw  up  the  game,  but  gave  way  and  only 
retired  onto  another  similar  position  in  the  rear."  These 
measures  of  tardy  justice  to  English  and  Irish  Catholics  did 
little  to  relieve  the  situation  in  Ireland,  wKich  was  aggravated 
by  other  ills.  These  were  essentially  of  an  economic  nature  and 
will  be  discussed  later. 

This  same  epoch  saw  great  changes  in  the  administration  of 
justice.  The  criminal  law  was  harsh  and  exacting,  imposing  the  The  Reform 
severest  penalties  for  petty  offences.  The  death  penalty  was 
prescribed  for  some  200  offences.  It  could  even  be  imposed  in 
case  of  theft,  where  the  value  of  the  article  was  as  low  as  twelve 
pence.  Only  the  leniency  of  magistrates  and  bailiffs  stood 
between  an  offender  and  penalties  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
offences  committed.  Such  a  situation  bred  a  disrespect  for 
law  and  multiphed  offences.  A  thoroughgoing  reform  was  Romuiy 
carried  through  by  such  men  as  Peel  and  Romilly. 

107.  The  Reform  Measures  of  1832-3.  —  The  accession  in 
1830  of  William  IV,  the  sailor  prince,  and  the  coming  to  power 
of  the  Whig  Ministry  of  Earl  Grey,  marked  the  beginning  of  a 
new  order  in  England,  with  the  friends  of  reaction  stubbornly 
contesting  every  inch  of  ground.  A  bill  was  introduced  provid-  pe  Reform 
ing  for  a  redistribution  of  the  seats  in  parliament  and  an  exten- 
sion of  the  franchise.  The  revolutionary  character  of  this 
measure  may  be  reahzed  by  a  glance  at  the  system  which  it 
sought  to  replace.  England  was  ruled  by  and  in  the  interests 
of  a  few.  The  conditions  of  voting  and  office-holding  were  such  Conditions 
that  a  very  small  group  of  individuals,  drawn  largely  from  the 


the  Criminal 
Law 


and  Peel 


Bill  of  183a 


of  Voting 


248      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

landed  aristocracy,  were  empowered  to  act  in  the  interests  of 
the  masses.  In  the  counties  the  right  to  vote  was  limited  to  free- 
holders, thus  debarring  great  numbers  who  were  merely  tenants 
or  who  held  land  by  copyhold  —  a  form  of  land  tenure  which 
placed  certain  restrictions  upon  the  owner.     In  the  boroughs 


John  Howard's  Visit  to  a  Prison 

John  Howard  the  reformer  is  here  shown  visiting  the  wretched  inmates 
of  an  English  prison  before  the  reform  in  the  criminal  law  and  in  penal 
methods  was  made. 

and  cities  conditions  were  even  worse.  There  was  no  uniformity 
of  practice  as  to  the  right  to  vote,  which  was  determined  by  the 
charter  or  by  ancient  custom.  In  some  cities  every  tax  payer 
had  a  vote;  in  others  the  selection  of  representatives  was  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  city  corporation.  The  disappearance  of 
populous  communities  and  the  shifting  of  population  which 
accompanied  the  progress  of  the  industrial  revolution  had  left 
the  choice  of  members  in  some  communities  in  the  hands  of  a 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      249 

single  landholder  or  a  small  group  of  individuals.  These  were 
known  as  "  rotten  "  or  "  pocket  "  boroughs.  The  new  centres  of  "  Rotten  •• 
population  had  either  no  representation  at  all  in  parliament  ^rJ^*^ 
or  an  inadequate  one.  Great  counties  numbering  thousands  of 
voters  had  the  same  number  of  representatives  as  a  small  shire 
like  Rutland.  The  two  evils,  (i)  a  narrow  franchise  and  (2) 
an  unequal  distribution  of  seats,  went  hand  in  hand.  One 
could  not  be  properly  adjusted  without  the  other.  The  Re- 
form Bill  of  1832,  therefore,  aimed  (i)  at  a  widening  of  the 
franchise  by  including  copyholders  and  leaseholders  in  the 
counties  who  paid  a  rental  of  £10  a  year  and  tenants  paying 
£50  and  conferring  the  franchise  in  the  boroughs  and  cities 
upon  all  who  paid  rent  to  the  amount  of  £10  yearly;  and  (2) 
at  a  redistribution  of  the  membership  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons by  giving  communities  like  Manchester  and  Leeds  a  ref>- 
resentation,  aboHshing  the  so-called  "  rotten  "  or  "  pocket " 
boroughs,  or  diminishing  their  representation,  and  assigning 
their  members  to  the  more  populous  communities.  "This 
arrangement,"  says  Oman,  "left  the  shopkeepers  masters  in  the 
towns,  and  the  farmers  in  the  countryside.  The  artisans  in  the 
one,  the  agricultural  laborers  in  the  other,  were  still  left  without 
the  franchise  and  had  to  wait,  the  one  class  thirty,  and  the 
other  fifty,  years  before  obtaining  it."  ^ 

It  must  not  be  assumed  that  this  great  triumph  was  won  with- 
out hard  fighting.  The  House  of  Lords  stood  out  as  the  great  Opposition  of 
bulwark  of  the  old  order.  When  Lord  John  Russell  introduced  ^*iJ,^r* 
the  bill  in  1831,  the  measure  was  only  carried  by  one  vote  on  its 
second  reading  in  the  Commons.  The  ministry  wished  to 
resign,  but  the  king  would  not  hear  to  the  proposal.  He  dis- 
solved parliament  instead  and  called  for  a  new  election  to  test 
the  sentiment  of  the  country.  The  result  was  a  majority  of  136 
in  favor  of  the  bill.  At  this  point  the  Lords  placed  themselves 
in  direct  opposition  to  the  country  to  defeat  the  measure,  and 
when  the  bill  was  submitted  to  them  for  their  approval  they 
1  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  p.  59.  / 


250     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Conservatives 
and  Liberals 


The  Abolition 
of  Slavery 


Clarkson  and 
Wilberforce 


Factory 
Legislation 


rejected  it  by  a  large  majority.  Then  was  heard  the  cry 
throughout  the  country,  ''The  bill,  the  whole  bill,  and  nothing 
but  the  bill."  It  looked  very  much  as  though  the  fate  of  the 
House  of  Lords  would  be  tied  up  with  that  of  the  bill,  so  strong 
was  the  feeling  against  this  body.  Earl  Grey  even  proposed 
the  creation  of  sufficient  peers  to  ensure  its  passage.  Realiz- 
ing the  crisis,  they  finally  yielded,  after  various  efforts  to 
amend  the  bill  and  to  render  it  innocuous  so  far  as  the  old 
borough  system  was  concerned.  It  was  about  the  time  of  this 
struggle  that  the  old  party  names  of  Tory  and  Whig  began  to 
give  way  to  the  present  names  of  Conservatives  and  Liberals. 
The  Tories  came  to  be  known  by  the  former  designation;  the 
Whigs  became  the  Liberals. 

The  new  parliament  which  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  brought 
into  existence  was  responsible  for  several  other  measures  pro- 
viding for  much-needed  changes  in  the  existing  order.  It  has 
been  said  that  "no  session  has  been  more  fruitful  of  legislative 
activity  than  that  of  1833."  Perhaps  its  greatest  achievement 
was  the  abohtion  of  slavery  in  the  British  colonies.  Public 
opinion  was  very  strong  against  the  slave  trade  at  the  time  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  was  in  session,  and  the  English  representa- 
tive had  sought  on  this  occasion  to  mitigate  its  horrors  by 
understandings  with  the  nations  on  the  continent.  This 
agitation  had  been  accompanied  by  a  movement  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery  with  leaders  like  Clarkson  and  Wilberforce.  Their 
efforts  were  at  last  rewarded  by  the  passage  in  1833  of  a  measure 
providing  for  gradual  abolition.  Several  millions  of  dollars 
were  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of  the  slaves  and  their 
release.  The  colonies  most  affected  were  the  West  Indies,  where 
the  negro  slave  was  used  upon  the  sugar  cane  plantations, 
and  the  British  possessions  in  South  Africa. 

108.  Other  Social  Reforms.  —  Even  though  the  parliamen- 
tary leaders  of  this  period  did  not  see  fit  to  place  the  ballot  in  the 
hands  of  the  factory  workers,  they  yielded  to  the  strong  current 
of  public  opinion  which  had  risen  against  the  exploitation  of 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      251 

helpless  women  and  children  by  the  great  capitalists.  The  desire 
to  make  money  quickly  had  blinded  the  eyes  of  many  of  these 
factory  owners  to  the  hardships  undergone  by  the  men,  women, 
and  children  in  their  employ.  The  hours  were  long  and  the 
conditions  of  labor  such  that  the  employee  found  himself  in  a 
position  little  better  than  that  of  the  slave.  The  demand  for 
hands  was  so  great  that  children  were  taken  from  the  poor- 
houses  and  public  institutions  and  reared  in  a  state  of  ignorance 
and  degradation  for  the  sake  of  the  contribution  which  they 
could  make  to  the  yearly  output.  The  workingmen  were  for- 
bidden to  combine  to  protect  their  interests,  and,  not  having  the 
political  power  conferred  by  the  ballot,  their  lot  steadily  grew 
worse.  The  same  humanitarian  wave  which  emancipated  the 
slave  bettered  the  lot  of  the  white  factory  hand  at  home, 
and  laws  providing  for  shorter  hours  and  more  sanitary  work 
rooms  for  the  wage  earner,  were  speedily  enacted.  A  beginning 
was  also  made  for  a  system  of  public  education,  the  need  for 
which  had  become  more  apparent  with  the  rapid  increase  in 
population  which  followed  the  industrial  revolution.  In  this 
particular,  England  lagged  behind  other  countries  and  even 
today  has  still  much  to  learn  from  her  continental  neighbors. 

Closely  allied  with  this  new  factory  legislation  and  the  growth  The  Reform  of 
of  free  trade  was  a  new  Poor  Law  enacted  by  the  reform  parlia- 
ment. The  measures  for  relieving  poverty  up  to  this  time  had 
encouraged  the  shiftless  and  the  lazy  and  had  made  it  possible 
for  factory  owners  to  pay  low  wages,  as  these  were  often  suf>- 
plemented  by  relief  funds  supplied  at  the  expense  of  the  parish. 
The  new  arrangement  made  the  burdens  lighter  upon  each 
parish  by  grouping  the  parishes  into  unions  and  by  the  creation 
of  a  central  board  to  supervise  and  control  the  local  units.  This 
put  an  end  to  some  of  the  old  and  vicious  practices  by  allow- 
ing the  poor  to  go  wherever  work  was  to  be  found  instead  of 
restricting  them  to  the  parishes  where  they  resided. 

These  same  industrial  changes  raised  other  questions  of  a 
more  or  less  perplexing  nature.     By  this  time  William  IV  had 


the  Poor  Law 


252     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Accession 
of  Victoria 


Famine 
in  Ireland 


Peel  and  the 
Repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws 


Labor 
Legislation 


The 
Chartists 


been  succeeded  by  his  niece  Queen  Victoria  (1837).  Her  reign 
of  64  years  witnessed  some  of  the  greatest  progress  yet  attained 
in  industry.  As  England  developed  more  and  more  into  a 
manufacturing  country,  it  became  more  and  more  apparent  that 
she  must  have  markets  for  her  wares  and  that  she  must  depend 
upon  the  outside  world  for  her  food  supply.  A  terrible  famine, 
which  wrought  the  greatest  havoc  in  Ireland  in  184^6,  due  to  the 
failure  of  the  potato  crop,  brought  the  question  of  tariff  restric- 
tions upon  foodstuffs  before  the  country  in  a  forcible  fashion. 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  who  was  then  prime  minister,  succeeded  in 
carrying  the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  corn  laws  (sec.  96). 
This  was  the  easier  to  bring  about  at  this  time  on  account  of 
a  change  of  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  people,  who  were  begin- 
ning to  show  decided  leanings  towards  free  trade.  In  1838  an 
Anti-Corn  Law  League  had  been  formed  among  the  manufac- 
turing class,  and  they  had  carried  on  an  active  campaign  to 
lower  the  cost  of  living.  Such  a  movement  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  living  would  enable  them  to  cut  down  wages  and  thus 
compete  more  successfully  with  foreign  producers.  Peel's 
budget  of  1845,  providing  for  the  public  revenue,  had  also 
shown  most  decided  leanings  towards  free  trade  in  abolishing 
the  export  duties  and  the  import  duties  on  430  articles  of  raw 
material.  By  the  end  of  this  epoch  a  long  step  had  been 
taken  towards  placing  England  upon  her  present  revenue  basis 
by  which  no  taxes  are  laid  on  imports  such  as  raw  materials, 
machinery,  and  articles  used  for  food. 

Besides  the  steady  advance  of  the  free  trade  movement 
there  is  to  be  noted  in  the  late  40's  additional  legislation 
bearing  upon  the  lot  of  the  working  classes.  In  1844  a  law 
was  enacted  safeguarding  them  against  dangerous  machinery; 
and  in  1847  a  ten  hour  day  was  secured  for  all  workers,  both 
male  and  female. 

The  agitation  of  1848  on  the  continent  was  only  partially 
reflected  in  England.  In  this  year  the  Chartist  movement 
reached  its  climax.     The  working  classes,  suspecting  the  mo- 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT     253 

tives  of  the  organizers  of  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League,  who 
belonged  to  the  employing  class,  had  launched  this  move- 
ment in  1839,  trusting  to  the  old  panacea  of  poHtical  power 
to  reUeve  their  distress.  They  formulated  six  demands 
known  as  the  People's  Charter.  These  were  regarded  as 
highly  revolutionary  in  character,  but  would  not  be  consid- 
ered radical  today.  They  included  manhood  suffrage,  vote 
by  ballot,  the  abolition  of  a  property  qualification  for  mem- 
bers of  parHament,  equal  electoral  districts,  annual  parlia- 
ments, and  the  secret  ballot.  In  1848  they  proposed  to  hold 
a  monster  meeting  and  submit  a  monster  petition  to  parlia- 
ment. The  government  became  alarmed  and  special  deputies 
were  sworn  in  to  preserve  order.  Little  came  of  the  agita- 
tion. The  petition  was,  it  is  true,  presented  in  due  form  but 
in  a  quiet,  unostentatious  fashion.  An  enormous  proportion 
of  its  2,000,000  signatures  proved  to  be  fictitious  and  ''chart- 
ism as  a  revolutionary  movement  collapsed  amid  derision  into 
utter  insignificance." 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  Of  what  ruler  was  it  said  especially  that  "he  had  learned  nothing  and 
forgotten  nothing"?  2.  Read  the  "Charter  of  1814,"  and  summarize  its 
provisions  in  your  note-books.  3.  What  important  political  questions  were 
left  unsettled  by  the  Charter?  4.  Explain  how  the  Austrian  possessions  were 
consohdated  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  5,  Discuss  Mettemich's  aims  in 
Italy.  6.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  career  of  Bolivar.  7.  Discuss  the  origin  of 
the  Monroe  Doctrine.  8.  Read  Canning's  proposal  to  the  United  States. 
9.  Compare  the  diplomatic  policy  of  the  United  States  toward  the  European 
situations  of  1822  and  1914.  10,  Give  an  account  of  the  revolution  in  Portu- 
gal. II,  Give  instances  of  Louis  Phihppe's  attempts  to  merit  the  title  of 
** bourgeois  king."  12.  Read  England's  statement  at  the  outbreak  of  war 
in  1914  covering  the  question  of  Belgium's  neutrality.  13.  Give  a  fuller 
statement  of  the  theories  of  Louis  Blanc.  14.  Explain  this  statement, 
"The  Prussian  government  still  preserved  many  of  its  divine  right  features." 

15,  Read  an  account  of  the  deliberations  of  the  Parliament  at  Frankfort. 

16.  Show  how  Frederick  William  was  forced  to  drain  to  the  dregs  the  cup 
of  humiliation  at  Olmiitz.  17.  Give  a  more  complete  account  of  the  Revo- 
lution of  1848  in  Hungary.  18.  Why  was  the  group  of  fortresses  in  the 
north  of   Italy  called  the  "quadrilateral"?     19.  Give  instances  of  the 


254     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

tyranny  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Naples.  20.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  career  of 
Daniel  O'Connell.  21.  Review  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts.  22.  Give 
instances  of  rotten  or  pocket  boroughs,  and  explain  what  was  done  by 
Chatham,  Wilkes,  and  Pitt  in  the  eighteenth  century  in  favor  of  their 
abolition. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  The  Reconstruction  of  Europe. 

Hazen,  Europe  since  1815,  pp.  1-22.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Devel- 
opment of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  343-62.  Seignobos,  Con- 
temporary Civilization,  pp.  194-203.  Fyffe,  History  of  Modern 
Europe,  pp.  380-7,  406-11.  Hawkesworth,  The  Last  Century  in 
Europe,  pp.  24-34.  Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  11,  pp.  5-46. 
^  II.  Reaction  in  Austria  and  Germany. 

Jane,  Metternich  to  Bismarck,  pp.  7-15.  Hazen,  pp.  23-44.  Robin- 
son and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  12-7.  Priest,  Germany  since  1740, 
pp.  76-84.  Henderson,  A  Short  History  of  Germany,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  324-38. 

III.  Reaction  and  Revolution  in  Spain  and  Italy. 

Hazen,  pp.  45-65.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  17-28.  Fyffe, 
pp.  478-96.  Shepherd,  Latin  America,  pp.  69-81.  Hawkes- 
worth, pp.  35-92.  Jane,  pp.  30-39,  74-7.  Hayes,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  22-8. 

IV.  France  under  the  Restoration  and  the  Revolution  of  1830. 

Hazen,  pp.  66-99.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  i-io.     Fyffe, 
PP-    375-80j    603-20.      Andrews,    Historical    Development    of 
Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.   134-79.     Jane,  pp.  17-30,   78-89. 
Hawkesworth,  pp.  93-1 11.     Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  14-20. 
V.  Revolutions  beyond  France. 

Hazen,  pp.  100-13.     Priest,  pp.  84-90.    Andrews,  Vol.  I,  pp.  257- 
75.    Henderson,  Vol.  II,  pp.  338-45.    Jane,  pp.  89-95,  97-102. 
Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  53-7: 
VI.  The  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Hazen,  pp.  114-44.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  53-9.  Fyffe, 
pp.  699-706.  Andrews,  Vol.  I,  pp.  276-345.  Hawkesworth, 
pp.  161-78.    Jane,  pp.  109-16,  126-9.    Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  116-23. 

Source  Studies 

1.  Charter  of  1814.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  Vol.  II,  pp.  2-5. 

2.  The  government  under  Louis  XVIII.     Ihid.,  pp.  6-9. 

3.  Charles  X's  governmental  problems.    Ihid.,  pp.  9-13. 

4.  Invitation  to  Louis  Phihppe  to  the  throne.    Ihid.,  pp.  13-4. 

5.  Creation  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium.    Ihid.,  pp.  14-6. 

6.  Carlsbad  resolutions.    Ihid.,  pp.  20-3. 

7.  Ferdinand's  appeal  to  the  Spanish- Americans.    Ihid.,  pp.  33-5. 

8.  Farini's  description  of  Italy  after  the  restoration.    Ihid.,  28-31. 

9.  Metternich's  theory  of  intervention.     (Troppau)  Ihid.,  pp.  36-8. 


STRUGGLE  FOR  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      255 

10.  Holy  Alliance.    Ihid.,  pp.  38-40. 

11.  The   Monroe  Doctrine.    Ibid.,  pp.  42-4.    HiU,  Liberty   Documents, 

pp.  321-328. 

12.  O'Connell's  policy,  1829.    Colby,  Selections  from  Sources  of  English 

History,  pp.  303-6. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 
I.  On  a  map  of  the  Netherlands  show  the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium.  2.  Show  the  territorial  arrangements  of  central  Europe  from 
181 5  to  1866.  3.  On  a  map  of  South  and  Central  America  show  the  posses- 
sions of  Spain  and  Portugal  about  181 2.  4.  On  a  map  of  Italy  show  the 
territorial  divisions  in  1820. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Central  Europe,  1815-66,  p.  158. 
Rise  of  the  German  customs  union,  p.  160.  South  America  about  1790, 
p.  215. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  The  German  Confederation, 
1815-66,  p.  28.  Italy  since  1815,  p.  29.  Exclusion  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
from  South  America,  p.  31. 

Muir,  School  Atlas.  Holt.  Italy  in  the  nineteenth  century,  p.  16.  The 
German  Confederation,  p.  igi.     The  world  in  1830,  p.  40. 

Robertson -Bartholomew,  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  Oxford 
Press.  France,  1814-1914,  No.  9.  Germany,  1815-1914,  No.  13.  Prussia, 
1815-1914,  No.  14.  Italy,  1815,  No.  17.  Austria-Hungary,  1815-1914,  No. 
21.     Poland,  1815-1914,  No.  28. 

Bibliography 
Andrews.    Historical  Development  of  Modern  Europe.    Two  volumes  in  one. 

Putnam. 
Colby.     Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  History.    Longmans. 
Fyffe.    History  of  Modern  Europe.     Holt. 
Hawkesworth.     The  Last  Century  in  Europe.     Longmans. 
Hayes.     The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe.     Volume  IT. 

Macmillan. 
Hazen.    Europe  since  181 5.     Holt. 

Henderson.    A  Short  History  of  Germany.    Two  volumes  in  one.    Macmillan. 
Hill.     Liberty  Documents.     Longmans. 

Jane.    Metternich  to  Bismarck,  1815-1878.     Oxford  University  Press. 
Jeffery.    New  Europe,  lySg-iSSg.     Houghton  Mifflin. 
Priest.    Germany  since  1740.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe.     Volumes  I  and  IT. 

Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.    Readings  in  Modern  European  History.    Volume  II. 

Ginn. 
Seignobos.    Contemporary  Civilization.    Scribner. 
Shepherd.    Latin  America.    Holt. 


CHAPTER  DC 

THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON  III  AND  THE 
NATIONALIST  WARS,   1848-1871 

109.  Character  and  Aims  of  Louis  Napoleon.  —  Prominent 
as  France  had  been  in  the  revolutionary  movements  of  i'83o 
and  1848,  she  still  continued  to  be  a  centre  of  interest  after  these 
efforts  had  subsided.  In  fact  her  influence  upon  the  course  of 
European  history  became  even  more  marked  with  the  accession 
to  power  of  Louis  Napoleon  as  ruler  of  the  so-called  Second 
Empire.  This  new  figure  upon  the  scene  was  a  nephew  of  the 
great  Napoleon,  a  son  of  that  brother  whom  he  had  once  created 
King  of  Holland.  Louis  Napoleon  had  lived  first  in  Italy,  then 
on  the  Rhine  frontier,  and  later  in  England  during  the  interval 
which  elapsed  between  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  and  the 
Revolution  of  1848.  He  had  followed  closely  all  that  had  taken 
place  in  France  during  this  time  and  on  two  separate  occasions 
had  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  movements  to  overthrow 
the  existing  government.  He  lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  intrigue 
and  conspiracy,  allying  himself  as  a  young  man  with  the  Car- 
bonari in  Italy  and  working  from  that  time  forward  by  secret 
and  devious  ways  to  attain  power  and  influence.  He  was  a 
born  schemer,  but  not  without  certain  ideals  which  furnished 
him  with  a  motive  for  his  activities.  These  ideals  were  in  part 
the  result  of  his  heritage,  as  he  had  saturated  himself  in  the 
doings  of  his  illustrious  relative  and  gloried  in  the  fact  that  he 
was  the  "nephew  of  his  uncle."  He  was  convinced  of  his  mission 
as  the  heir  of  the  Napoleonic  ideals  and  spent  his  early  man- 
hood in  writing  and  intriguing  to  secure  recognition.     Although 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


^57 


he  was  ridiculed  by  his  contemporaries  in  consequence  of  his 
devotion  to  his  idea  and  as  a  result  of  his  absurd  and  dramatic 
efforts  to  reaUze  it,  he  never  lost  sight  of  the  desired  goal  and 
bided  the  time  which  he  felt  would  arrive  sooner  or  later  when 
this  relationship  would  prove  of  inestimable  value.  Signs  were 
not  wanting  that  a  reaction  had  already  set  in,  decidedly  favor- 
able to  the  life  and  career  of  the  great  Emperor.   Just  enough 


Costumes  from  1834  to  1864 


time  had  elapsed  to  cast  a  halo  about  his  deeds  and  to  blot  out 
the  recollection  of  his  acts  of  tyranny  and  oppression.  Napoleon 
himself  had  labored  during  his  closing  years  upon  the  island  of 
St.  Helena  to  whitewash  his  career  and  to  prove  to  the  world 
what  a  mistake  had  been  committed  in  condemning  to  such  a 
fate  its  would-be  liberator.  These  efforts,  accompanied  as  they 
were  by  such  writings  as  Thiers'  History  of  the  Empire  and 
Lamartine's  poetry,  had  done  much  to  create  a  fictitious 
Napoleon,  the  friend  of  all  mankind  and  the  ideal  ruler  of  the 
French  people.  Louis  Philippe  had  sought  to  add  to  his  own 
waning  popularity  by  countenancing  this  teaching,  bringing  the 
ashes  of  the  great  conqueror  back  from  St.  Helena  in  1840  to  give 
them  a  magnificent  burial  m  the  Hotel  des  Invahdes  in  Paris.  ^ 
The  idea  which  Napoleon  himself  had  sought  to  impress  upon 

1  See  illustration  p.  234. 


The  Napoleonic 

Legend 


258      ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Form 

of  Government 


Influence  of 
the  Socialists 


The  National 
Workshops 


his  countrymen,  that  he  was  the  child  of  the  Revolution,  the 
instrument  designated  by  Heaven  to  carry  out  its  ideals,  was 
now  brought  prominently  to  the  fore,  and  no  one  strove  with 
greater  diligence  to  convince  the  French  people  of  the  truth 
of  this  claim  than  this  "nephew  of  his  uncle." 

110.  The  Second  Republic  and  its  Problems.  —  The  Direc- 
tory had  opened  for  the  elder  Napoleon  the  door  of  opportu- 
nity; the  long-looked-for  moment  came  to  the  nephew  in  the 
events  which  followed  the  Revolution  of  1848.  The  government 
of  Louis  Philippe,  the  bourgeois  monarchy,  as  it  was  known, 
had  crumbled  into  the  dust,  leaving  scarcely  a  vestige  of  its 
former  existence.  The  provisional  government  soon  gave  way 
to  a  constitutional  convention  chosen  by  manhood  suffrage. 
A  ministry  or  executive  committee  of  five  was  chosen  and  set 
to  work  to  evolve  a  satisfactory  form  of  government.  A  re- 
public was  immediately  proclaimed,  but  before  it  could  be 
established  upon  a  firm  basis  certain  perplexing  problems  were 
raised  as  the  result  of  the  demands  of  the  working  classes 
for  some  relief  from  their  condition  of  economic  dependence 
upon  the  employing  class  and  from  their  lack  of  work.  They 
believed  that  the  government  should  recognize,  as  a  funda- 
mental right,  the  right  to  work.  The  efforts  to  satisfy  their 
demands,  whether  sincerely  entered  upon  by  those  in  power  or 
not,  led  to  serious  consequences.  Louis  Blanc  had  emphasized 
the  advantages  which  would  accrue  to  the  working  classes  if  the 
government  should  organize  industry  by  establishing  national 
workshops.  His  idea  seems  to  have  been  to  subsidize  certain 
industries  but  to  leave  the  management  of  these  in  the  hands 
of  the  workers.  The  experiment  which  was  now  tried  by 
those  in  power  differed  radically  from  this  proposal.  All  who 
offered  themselves  for  employment  were  enrolled  in  battalions, 
companies,  and  the  like,  and  were  set  to  work  upon  the  streets, 
the  erection  of  public  buildings,  and  the  completion  of  various 
government  undertakings.  They  were  paid  a  certain  wage 
when  employed  and  allowed  a  certain  stipend  when  there  was 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  259 

not  enough  work  to  keep  them  busy.  The  government,  with 
thousands  of  laborers  upon  its  payrolls  and  with  the  number 
constantly  increasing,  soon  found  itself  facing  a  serious  eco- 
nomic crisis.  It  could  only  furnish  work  two  days  a  week 
and  could  only  pay  eight  francs  a  week.  The  result  was  dis- 
content, and  on  May  15  a  riot  occurred  in  the  city  of  Paris. 
There  was  only  one  solution  and  that  was  to  abandon  altogether 
the  national  workshop  idea.  The  closing  of  these  was  the  signal  street  Fichtinc 
for  the  erection  of  barricades  in  the  streets  and  an  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  working  classes  to  overthrow  the  constitutional 
government.  General  Cavaignac  was  intrusted  with  the  task 
of  suppressing  the  insurrection  and  succeeded  only  after  four 
days  of  fighting  in  which  the  city  suffered  considerably  at  the 
hands  of  the  insurgents. 

When  order  was  once  more  restored  the  new  constitution  which 
provided  for  manhood  suffrage  was  submitted  to  the  people 
and  they  proceeded  to  ballot  for  president.  General  Cavaignac 
was  one  of  the  candidates,  as  was  also  Louis  Napoleon,  who  had 
already  been  chosen  a  member  of  the  constitutional  convention 
from  several  different  districts,  such  was  the  popularity  of  his 
name.  The  full  force  of  his  connection  with  the  dead  emperor  now 
made  itself  manifest.  The  propertied  classes  had  been  the  worst 
sufferers  in  the  events  just  passed.  Business  and  commerce 
were  at  a  standstill;  property  owners  had  seen  their  rents  cut 
in  half  and  more;  and  the  peasants  in  the  rural  districts,  with 
the  increase  in  taxation,  now  found  themselves  saddled  with 
the  financial  burden  of  the  disastrous  economic  experiment  so 
recently  practised.  The  demand  everywhere,  as  in  1799,  was 
for  peace  and  order  and  for  that  prosperity  which  was  supposed 
to  accompany  it.  The  name  Napoleon  seemed  to  stand  for  just 
such  a  program.  By  an  overwhelming  vote,  therefore,  Louis  Louis  Napoleon 
Napoleon  was  elected  President  of  the  second  French  Repubhc.   J,  the*  se^^nd 

Louis  Napoleon  for  some  time  presented  to  his  contemporaries  RepubUc 
as  much  of  an  enigma  as  did  his  great  namesake.    The  key  to  his 
career  is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  his  ambition  to  follow  in  the 


Louis  Napoleon 


260     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

His  Imitation  footsteps  of  the  great  emperor.  In  1849  he  had  written,  "The 
of  Napoleon  I  ^g^j^g  Napoleon  is  a  complete  program  in  itself;  it  stands  for 
order,  authority,  religion,  the  welfare  of  the  people  within; 
without  for  national  dignity."  How  far  he  reahzed  this  pro- 
gram, how  far  he  was  governed  by  the  acts  of  his  predecessor, 
how  far  he  succeeded  in  building  for  himself  a  reputation  com- 
parable to  the  first  emperor,  are  questions  of  absorbing  interest 
to  students  of  the  work  of  the  great  Bonaparte. 
Personality^  of  The  personality  of  this  one  upon  whom  the  mantle  of  the  great 
Napoleon  had  fallen  deserves  more  than  a  passing  notice.  Like 
his  uncle's,  his  figure  was  short  and  unimposing,  with  legs  which 
seemed  much  too  short  for  his  body.  His  wooden  features 
masked  most  effectively  his  inmost  thoughts,  and  his  half-shut 
eyes  strengthened  the  impression  of  dulness  and  apathy  conveyed 
by  the  countenance  as  a  whole.  He  has  been  pictured  as  a  ver- 
itable MacchiaveUian  type,  but  he  lacked  the  coolness  and 
indifference  to  suffering  which  are  usually  associated  with  Mac- 
chiavelli's  Prince.  He  was  probably  very  much  misunderstood 
and  misjudged.  His  moral  standards  were  probably  little 
higher  than  those  of  the  uncle  whom  he  imitated,  and  his 
great  weakness  seems  to  have  been  an  indecision  which  spelled 
disaster  to  many  of  his  plans.  He  carefully  weighed  every 
method  before  adopting  it,  but  unlike  his  model  failed  often  to 
foresee  the  consequences  of  his  acts  and  hesitated  and  drew 
back  before  his  task  was  completed.  There  was  much  of  the 
actor  in. his  make-up.  Time  and  again  he  showed  a  fondness 
for  dramatic  poses  and  stage  setting,  which  often  transformed 
a  tragic  situation  into  a  veritable  comedy. 

111.  The  Formation  of  the  Second  Empire.  —  The  new  con- 
stitution which  had  been  intrusted  to  his  hands  provided  for  a 
complete  separation  of  the  legislative  from  the  executive  func- 
tions, but  furnished  no  adequate  method  of  bringing  these  two 
together  and  harmonizing  them  in  case  differences  arose.  Al- 
though clearly  defective.  Napoleon  hoped  to  refashion  it  in 
conformity  with  his  own  ideas.    The  legislative  assembly  un-- 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  261 

consciously  played  into  the  hands  of  the  new  president,  who 
gradually  absorbed  all  its  power.  As  the  end  of  his  term  of 
office  as  president  drew  near  he  made  ready  for  the  decisive 
step  which  was  to  make  him  virtual  dictator.  This  cpup-d^Hat  The 
was  carefully  arranged.  He  secured  control  of  the  army,  f^"^l  !  *** 
placed  his  personal  friends  in  the  chief  positions  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  on  the  morning  of  December  2,  185 1,  Paris  awoke 
to  find  the  city  placarded  with  proclamations  announcing  the 
dismissal  of  the  Assembly  and  proposing  that  Louis  Napoleon 
be  given  the  power  of  revising  the  framework  of  government. 
Several  of  the  leading  citizens  had  been  arrested  while  still  in 
their  beds,  and  soldiers  patrolled  the  city  in  the  interests  of 
the  prince  president.  So  much  disgust  had  already  been 
aroused  over  the  attitude  of  the  Assembly  and  so  successfully 
had  Louis  Napoleon  spread  broadcast  the  idea  that  he  was 
the  friend  of  army,  church,  bourgeois,  and  peasant  alike,  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  radical  element  in  Paris,  which  again 
indulged  in  street  fighting,  the  country  at  large  acquiesced  in 
the  coup-d'etat.  When,  a  year  later,  in  pursuance  of  his  ulti- 
mate goal,  the  president  asked  through  a  plebiscite  for  an  ex- 
pression of  opinion  as  to  the  desirability  of  replacing  the 
republic  with  an  Empire,  an  overwhelming  majority  gave  Establishment 
their  assent,  and  the  Second  Empire  came  into  being.  The  ^!^^  ^^^^ 
story  of  this  transformation  savors  of  sordidness  and  peanut 
politics.  Such  enthusiasm  as  attended  the  change  was  the 
result  of  a  deification  of  Napoleon  I  and  a  Wind  faith  that 
this  new  Napoleon  was  to  usher  in  that  golden  age  of  which  his 
great  predecessor  had  sung  in  the  days  of  his  captivity  and 
exile. 

"The  new  empire  means  peace,"  the  new  emperor  had  said  in  PoUcy  of 
a  speech  deUvered  at  Bordeaux  in  June,  but  events  soon  showed  ^•^^^^  ™ 
how  little  correspondence  there  was  between  this  pronouncement 
and  the  reality.     On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  question 
as  to  the  zeal  with  which  the  new  emperor  labored  to  promote 
industry,  to  improve  the  lot  of  the  laboring  classes,  and   to 


262     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

develop  the  resources  of  his  country.  His  ambitions  in  this  direc- 
tion he  voiced  in  the  following  words:  ''I  have  many  conquests 
to  make.  I  wish  to  achieve  economic  and  moral  victories. 
Such  are  the  conquests  that  I  contemplate,  and  all  of  you  who 
surround  me,  desire,  like  myself  the  welfare  of  the  fatherland; 
you  are  my  soldiers." 

The  period  of  the  empire  was  marked  by  the  construction  of 
railroads  and  canals,  the  founding  of  great  banking  and  credit 
institutions,  by  the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  by  various 
enterprises  which  suggested  themselves  for  the  promotion  of  the 
national  welfare  of  the  French  people.  There  were  few  periods 
marked  by  greater  prosperity.  Fortunes  were  made  with  sur- 
prising rapidity  and  an  atmosphere  of  comfort  and  plenty 
marked  the  next  quarter  century. 

112.  The  New  Empire  and  Europe :  The  Crimean  War.  — 
But  from  the  very  beginning  the  ambitions  of  the  new  emperor 
reached  far  beyond  the  borders  of  France,  as  befitted  a  nephew 
of  the  great  Napoleon.  His  desire  seems  to  have  been  to  secure 
once  more  for  France  that  leadership  of  Europe  which  was  once 
hers,  to  undo  the  work  done  at  Vienna  in  181 5,  to  summon 
another  congress,  which,  inaugurated  under  French  auspices, 
should  usher  in  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  nations.  He  posed 
as  a  believer  in  that  doctrine  of  nationality  which  his  great 
namesake  had  forgotten  and  the  Congress  of  Vienna  had 
ignored ;  in  short,  he  stood  ready  to  mix  up  in  any  complication, 
European,  Asiatic,  or  American,  which  should  redound  to  the 
glory  of  the  Second  Empire.  He  also  felt  the  weakness  of  his 
position  in  France  itself  and  thought  to  blind  the  eyes  of  French- 
men to  their  loss  of  freedom  at  home  by  brilliant  exploits  abroad. 

His  opportunity  for  attracting  European  attention  came  with 
the  Crimean  War,  which  was  partly  of  his  own  creation.  Rus- 
sian designs  upon  Turkey  and  the  revival  by  Napoleon  III  of 
certain  claims  to  the  protection  of  Christian  shrines  which  had 
been  formerly  enjoyed  by  France  but  had  been  allowed  to  lapse, 
gradually  brought  Russia  face  to  face  with  a  war  with  Turkey 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


263 


264     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Peace  of  Paris 


in  which  the  latter  was  supported  by  England  and  France. 
The  subjects  in  dispute  and  the  conflict  itself  form  one  phase 
of  the  Eastern  question  which  will  be  described  later,  but  in  this 
connection  the  Crimean  War  marked  the  entrance  upon  the 

scene  of  Napoleon  III  as  an 
important  factor  in  the  shap- 
ing of  modern  Europe.  This 
struggle,  which  broke  out  in 
1854  and  closed-  two  years 
later,  was  scarcely  creditable 
to  either  France  or  England 
as  a  military  or  political  un- 
dertaking. Mismanagement 
and  lack  of  preparation  were 
too  much  in  evidence.  The 
siege  of  Sebastopol  was  the 
chief  episode  of  the  war,  and 
the  death  of  the  Tsar 
Nicholas  and  the  accession  of 
Alexander  II  opened  the  way 
for  peace  negotiations.  It 
was  with  the  greatest  satis- 
faction that  Napoleon  III  sat 
down  at  the  council  table  in 
Paris  and  presided  over  the 
deliberations  which  resulted 
in  the  Peace  of  Paris.  He 
now  felt  that  France  once  more  had  her  rightful  place  among 
the  nations.  It  was  at  this  meeting  that  certain  rules  were  for- 
mulated for  the  conduct  of  war  and  that  Sardinia  was  able  to 
formulate  her  grievances  against  Austria  and  plead  for  the  sym- 
pathy of  Europe.  Her  place  at  the  council  table  was  a  victory 
for  the  diplomacy  of  Count  Cavour,  of  which  more  will  be  said 
later. 
The  Crimean  War  of   1854-56  was  the  first  break  in  the 


The  Holy  Sepulchre 

Interior  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  The  question 
as  to  whether  the  Greek  or  Roman 
Catholic  Church  should  have  the  care 
of  this  shrine  afforded  Napoleon  III  an 
opportunity  for  the  conflict  with  Russia 
known  as  the  Crimean  War. 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


265 


peaceful  relations  which  had  been   maintained  between  the 
states  of  Europe  for  almost  half  a  century.^     It  ushered  in  a 
period  of  less  than  twenty  years  in  which  four  other  great 
conflicts  raged;   the  Italian  War  of   1859,  the  Danish  War  of 
1864,  the   Seven  Weeks'  War  of  1866  between  Prussia  and 
Austria,  and  the  Franco-Ger- 
man struggle   of   1870-71. 
Napoleon  III,  by  entering  into 
a  struggle  with  Russia,  had  in- 
deed  unchained   the   dogs  of 
war  and  unwittingly  he   had 
also   sounded  his   own  death 
knell  and  sealed  the  fate  of  the 
Second  Empire.     Out  of  these 
wars  arose  a  new  Germany,  a 
new  Austria,  a  united  Italy, 
and   contemporary   France. 
The   framers   of   the   Vienna 
treaties   would  scarcely  have 
recognized     their    handiwork 
when  these  wars  had  ended. 

113.  Mazzini  and  Cavour  and  the  Struggle  for  Italian 
Unity.  —  The  kingdom  of  Italy  owes  its  existence  to  three  men, 
King  Victor  Emmanuel  II,  Count  Cavour,  and  Garibaldi,  aided 
and  abetted,  as  well  as  hindered,  by  Napoleon  III.  After  the 
atmosphere  had  cleared  in  Italy  in  1849  (sec.  104)  the  new 
king  of  Sardinia,  ably  assisted  by  Count  Cavour  as  minister, 
set  himself  to  the  task  so  hopelessly  abandoned  by  his  pre- 
decessor, Charles  Albert,  after  Novara.  The  ten  years  which 
followed  were  years  of  preparation.  Mazzini  had  labored  not 
in  vain  to  create  throughout  the  peninsula  a  strong  yearning 
for  unity  and  was  still  actively  working  to  attain  this  result. 
To  Cavour,  however,  must  be  accorded  the  credit  for  the  Cavour 
statesmanship  and  diplomacy  that  made  of  Mazzini's  dream 
^  See  also  in  sec.  126. 


Count  Cavour 
The  great  statesman  of  modern  Italy. 


266    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

a  reality.  Cavour  was  a  confirmed  optimist  at  an  epoch  when 
the  future  looked  black  and  hopeless  and  the  obstacles  seemed 
insurmountable.  His  little  eyes  twinkled  behind  his  glasses, 
and  his  rotund  face  and  figure  accorded  well  with  a  disposition 
which  was  inclined  to  look  upon  the  bright  side  and,  when 
one  method  failed,  to  try  another.  The  king  was  essentially 
a  soldier,  and  it  is  very  much  to  his  credit  that  he  placed 
implicit  confidence  in  his  minister  and  supported  him  in  all 
his  plans.  Both  were  convinced  that  the  motto  of  their  pre- 
decessor that  "Italy  can  accomplish  her  task  alone"  must  be 
abandoned,  and  they  must  look  to  outside  help  to  remove  the 
Austrian  incubus  and  bring  together  the  states  of  the  penin- 
sula. Cavour,  however,  first  proceeded  to  set  the  Sardinian 
territories  in  order  and  introduced  measures  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  industry  and  the  improvement  of  the  well-being  of  the 
people.  Railroads  were  constructed,  taxation  simplified,  the 
power  of  the  church  restricted,  and  finally  a  national  army  was 
organized  and  drilled  after  the  model  of  the^J^ger  states  of 
Europe.  ,;•;?  .%*» 

Cavour  saw  that  France  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon  III  was 
most  likely  to  lend  a  willing  ear  to  his  schemes  to  free  Italy. 
When,  therefore.  Napoleon  III  suggested  that  Sardinia  should 
throw  her  weight  in  the  balance  against  Russia  in  1854  he  gladly 
acquiesced,  sending  a  small  but  well-drilled  contingent  to  the 
Crimea.  The  Sardinians  grumbled,  but  Cavour  knew,  as  he 
remarked  later,  that  while  they  were  digging  in  the  mud  of  the 
Crimean  peninsula  they  were  building  out  of  that  same  mud  a 
united  Italy.  The  reward  came  in  the  admission  of  Sardinia  to 
the  deliberations  at  Paris  in  1856,  where,  in  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  Austria,  Cavour  ably  presented  the  sad  state  of 
Italy  under  her  domination.  Cavour  now  sought  a  definite 
assurance  of  French  assistance  in  the  event  of  a  war  with  Austria. 
The  emperor  hesitated,  but  finally,  in  a  celebrated  meeting  with 
Cavour  at  Plombieres,  yielded  to  the  importunities  of  the 
Sardinian  minister  and  agreed  to  support  Sardinia  with  an  army 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  267 

in  case  war  should  be  declared  upon  Austria.  Austria  was 
warned  of  the  impending  conflict  by  the  emperor  at  a  reception 
to  the  foreign  ambassadors.  On  this  occasion  he  expressed  his 
sorrow  that  the  relations  of  France  and  Austria  were  not  as 
friendly  as  of  yore.  Almost  simultaneously  King  Victor  Em- 
manuel in  an  address  before  the  Sardinian  parliament  insisted 
that  Italy's  cry  of  suffering  demanded  speedy  action.  A  pretext 
for  war  was  soon  found.  Austria  played  into  the  hands  of  Ca-  Austro- 
vour  by  serving  an  ultimatum  upon  Sardinia  to  disarm,  and  in  ^*''**°^"  ^" 
1859  the  struggle  opened.  Napoleon  III  brought  200,000 
soldiers  into  the  Po  Valley,  and  within  a  few  months  the 
combined  forces  had  inflicted  severe  blows  upon  the  Austrians 
at  Magenta  and  Solferino.  Napoleon  III,  however,  seems  to 
have  taken  alarm  at  these  successes  and  to  the  astonishment 
and  disgust  of  his  ally  hastened  to  conclude  an  armistice  at 
Villafranca,  which  was  a  little  later  embodied  in  a  more  per- 
manent form  as  the  Peace  of  Zurich.  The  Sardinian  king  and  Peace  of  Zurich 
his  minister  felt  that  Napoleon  had  backed  down  before  his 
task  was  half  completed.  Napoleon  III  was  fearful  of  the 
intervention  of  Prussia  as  well  as  of  compHcations  with  the 
Church  and  probably  had  no  thought  of  calling  into  being  a 
powerful  Italian  state  to  rival  France. 

As  a  result  of  this  treaty  of  peace  Lombardy  was  united  to  Gains  of 
Sardinia,  and  the  French  Emperor  received  as  a  reward  for  his  ^***^ 
assistance  Nice  and  Savoy.    These  latter  were  portions  of  the 
hereditary  possessions  of  the  Sardinian  sovereign,  but  were  in 
reality  less  ItaHan  than  the  other  territories  which  he  ruled. 
The  French  Emperor  had  builded  better  than  he  knew.    The 
hopes  which  he  had  aroused  could  not  be  stifled  nor  could  the  Annexations  of 
forces  which  he  had  set  in  motion  be  diverted  from  their  object,  ^^^^ 
and  the  people  of  the  small  states  of  Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany  Tuscany  and 
and  Romagna,  who  had  already  expelled  their  rulers,  voted  ^°™*«°* 
by  large  majorities  to  unite  with  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

114.  The  Completion  of  Italian  Unity.  —  Meanwhile  Gari- 
baldi had  set  sail   from   Genoa  with  a  thousand  red-shirted 


268     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Garibaldi  and 
his  Thousand 


Annexation 
of  Naples 


m. 


Alliance 
between 
Prussia 
and  Italy 


volunteers  to  take  advantage  of  the  discontent  in  the  South. 
Landing  at  Marsala,  Sicily,  his  httle  army  carried  everything 
before  it  and  crossing  over  to  the  mainland  soon  put  to  rout  the 
forces  of  King  Ferdinand  II,  the  weak,  narrow-minded  ruler  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Cavour  had  secretly  sup- 
ported Garibaldi's  enterprise  and  now  wished  Sardinia  to  profit 

by  it.  The  opposition  of  Napoleon 
III  and  the  Pope  were  the  principal 
obstacles  in  his  path.  .The  prob- 
lem presented  by  the  power  of  the 
papacy  was  too  delicate  and  too 
closely  connected  with  the  interests 
of  many  of  the  states  of  Europe  to 
precipitate  a  struggle  just  at  this 
time.  He  was  able,  however,  to 
throw  the  Sardinian  forces  under 
King  Victor  Emmanuel  into  Naples 
and  not  only  incorporate  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies,  but  the 
papal  states  of  Umbria  and  the 
Marches  as  well.  In  every  case  the  question  of  incorpora- 
tion with  Sardinia  was  submitted  to  the  people  themselves 
and  ratified  by  an  overwhelming  vote.  The  parliament  of  the 
new  Italian  kingdom  was  opened  amid  acclamations  in  the 
city  of  Turin  in  i860.  Venetia  and  part  of  the  papal  states, 
however,  were  still  to  be  won. 

These  acquisitions  came  as  the  result  of  the  two  struggles 
which  contributed  so  largely  to  the  unification  of  Germany. 
Prussia  had  placed  herself  at  the  head  of  this  movement,  as  will 
be  discussed  later.  When  Bismarck  undertook  to  crush  Austria 
he  looked  about  him  to  secure  either  the  active  cooperation  or 
the  benevolent  neutraUty  of  the  states  who  were  interested  in 
his  efforts.  He  found  in  Victor  Emmanuel  a  willing  ally  who 
was  glad  to  throw  the  influence  of  the  new  kingdom  upon  the 
side  of  Prussia.    Although  the  Italian  army  which  he  put  in  the 


Garibaldi 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


269 


Annexation 
of  Venetia 


270     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

field  against  Austria  was  beaten  on  the  battlefield  of  Custozza, 
the  success  of  the  Prussians  at  Sadowa  made  Prussia  master  of 
the  situation  and  in  the  treaty  which  followed  Bismarck  was 
not  unmindful  of  his  ally,  rewarding  him  with  the  coveted 
Venetian  territories. 


Monument  to  Victor  Emmanuel 

This  magnificent  monument,  erected  in  the  Piazza  Venezia,  Rome,  in 
honor  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  the  first  king  of  united  Italy,  has  only  recently 
been  completed.  It  stands  but  a  stone's  throw  from  the  ancient  Forum, 
and  the  Capitol  Hill  is  directly  back  of  it. 


Influence  of 
the  Franco- 
German  War 
on  the  Unifica- 
tion of  Italy 


Rome  fell  into  the  hands  of  Victor  Emmanuel  in  consequence 
of  the  struggle  between  France  and  Prussia,  which  broke  out  in 
1870.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  was  obliged  to  withdraw  the 
French  troops  which  had  been  placed  there  three  years  before 
and  the  troops  of  Victor  Emmanuel  occupied  the  city  without  a 
struggle.  The  pope,  however,  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
incorporation  of  his  state  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy  and  shut 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


271 


n 


p  g 

cr  f 

Is* 


'g 


^^^H^S        ''   ■i^KK^'jaj^^^^^^p^'^^^W^ 

1 

"^^^^^^^Nj^B 

* " 

H 

A 

272     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

"  The  Prisoner   himself  up  in  his  palace  of  the  Vatican  where  he  has  continued 
o  t  e   atican     ^^  maintain  a  court  befitting  his  claims  as  a  temporal  ruler, 
receiving  and  sending  representatives  to  those  Catholic  courts  of 
Europe  who  continue  to  recognize  his  claims  to  princely  author- 
ity.   The  King  of  Italy  was  careful  not  to  alienate  his  Catholic 


The  Vatican 

This  unusual  view  of  the  Vatican  Palace  at  Rome,  the  papal  residence,  is 
taken  from  the  roof  of  St.  Peter's  Cathedral,  which  is  nearby.  The  Vatican 
is  the  largest  palace  in  the  world,  and  contains  the  famous  Vatican  Library 
with  its  priceless  collections  of  manuscripts.  Christian  antiquities,  and  jewels; 
museums  with  some  of  the  greatest  statuary  and  paintings  in  the  world; 
and  the  exquisitely  beautiful  Sistine  Chapel,  on  the  walls  and  ceilings  of 
which  are  the  greatest  works  of  art  of  all  time. 


subjects  by  forcing  the  pope  to  recognize  an  established  fact. 
The  Italian  parliament,  to  compensate  the  pope  for  his  loss  of 
revenue,  has  set  aside  a  large  annual  grant  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  in  a  state  worthy  of  his  position  as 
the  head  of  a  great  church.    These  moneys  the  pope  has  stead- 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  273 

fastly  refused  to  accept,  and  to  this  day  the  occupants  of  the 
papal  chair  have  hved  and  died  within  the  sacred  precincts  of 
the  Vatican  palace  and  its  grounds. 

Some  of  the  problems  before  the  new  kingdom  have  already  The 
been  suggested.     Besides  this  hostility  between  church  and  state  ^^'^^^^^ 
and  the  divided  allegiance  it  encouraged,  which  communicated  of  the 
itself  to  the  poUtical  parties,   there  were  such  questions  as  ^*7taf*^**°™ 
taxation,  education,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  proper  position 
in  Europe.     Sardinia  had  not  completed   this   task  without 
piUng  up  a  certain  legacy  for  its  future  leaders.    The  kingdom 
had  been  set  up  in  part  by  force,  and  it  seemed  a  wise  policy  to 
continue  to  maintain  a  large  standing  army.     This  involved 
additional   taxation.     The  people  of  the  peninsula  had  been 
misgoverned  so  long  and  so  little  attention  had  been  paid  to  their 
welfare   that  poverty,   ignorance,   and   crime   were   rampant, 
especially  in  the  South.    It  was  almost  as  big  a  task  to  create 
an  enlightened  progressive  state  out  of  this  chaos  as  to  evolve  a 
political  union  out  of  the  geographical  expression  of  18 15.    The  Form  of 
form  of  government  which  was  devised  to  meet  these  tasks  was     °^*™™"»' 
simply  an  expansion  of  the  constitution  granted  to  Sardinia  in 
1849  and  resembled  the  English  governmental  system,  providing 
for  a  parliament  of  two  houses,  a  cabinet  and  a  prime  minister 
responsible  to  the  law-making  authority,  and  a  kingship  heredi- 
tary in  the  House  of  Savoy.    The  privilege  of  voting  was 
restricted  —  perhaps   wisely  —  to   those   possessed   of   certain 
educational  qualifications,  and  seats  in  parHament  were  filled  by 
an  indirect  method  of  choosing  delegates.    The  Anglo-Saxon 
party  system  was  unknown,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  there 
were  no  parties.     The  word  "  party  "  had  a  different  meaning. 
It  is  applied  in  Italy,  as  in  so  many  of  the  other  states  of 
Europe,  to  certain  groups.    Like  the  glass  in  a  kaleidoscope, 
they  combine  first  in  one  way  and  then  in  another  and  lack 
permanency  of  existence  and  a  continuous  policy. 

115.  The    Rise    of    Prussian    Leadership    in    Germany.— 
While   the   events  just   named  were   taking  place,   Germany 


274    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Failure 
of  1848 
In  Germany 
and  its  Lessons 


Prussia's 
Darkest  Hour 


was  undergoing  an  equally  important  transformation.  Napo- 
leon III  again  proved  himself  an  important  if  albeit  an  unwill- 
ing factor  in  the  creation  of  modern  Germany.  The  aspirations 
of  German  patriots  had  been  dealt  a  severe  blow  in  1848 
(sec.  102).  A  movement  originating  with  the  people  them- 
selves was  apparently  foredoomed  to  failure.  One  lesson 
taught  at  this  time  was  that  either  Prussia  or  Austria  must 
undertake  the  task  of  uniting  Germany  if  there  was  to  be  a 
united  nation,  assuming,  of  course,  that  they  could  not  work 
together  to  achieve  this  result.  The  map  itself  emphasizes  this 
fact,  with  the  east  and  the  west  controlled  by  Prussia,  which 
stretched  like  a  great  dumb-bell  across  the  territory  included 
within  the  Confederation,  and  with  the  great  Austrian  mass 
thrusting  itself  into  the  very  heart  of  Germany.  It  seemed 
most  unlikely  that  the  forty  states  would  willingly  give  up  any 
of  their  privileges  or  prerogatives.  The  strongest  pressure 
must  be  exerted  from  without  upon  these  petty  principalities 
and  kingdoms  to  effect  a  merging  of  their  separate  sovereign- 
ties into  one  powerful  organism.  They  had  already  seen  the 
advantages  of  union  upon  the  economic  side  in  the  formation 
and  extension  of  the  Zollverein  or  Customs  Union  which  was 
launched  by  Prussia  back  in  the  early  part  of  the  century. 
Up  to  the  time  of  its  formation,  trade  between  the  different 
states  had  been  almost  as  difficult  to  carry  on  as  was  the  case 
between  the  different  parts  of  France  in  the  days  before  the 
French  Revolution.  One  by  one  the  states  of  the  Confedera- 
tion of  181 5  had  been  admitted  to  this  union,  all  but  Austria, 
who  was  not  wanted  on  any  condition. 

The  jealousy  between  Austria  and  Prussia  had  by  this  time 
become  most  acute.  The  humiliation  of  Olmutz  had  given 
Austria  the  whip  hand,  and  in  the  meetings  of  the  Confederation 
her  representatives  assumed  a  conscious  air  of  superiority.  As 
president  of  the  Confederation  she  dictated  such  terms  as 
pleased  her  to  the  other  representatives  around  the  council 
table.    It  was  one  of  Prussia's  darkest  hours;  but  with  the  acces- 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  275 

sion  of  William  I  and  the  coming  into  power  of  Otto  von  Bis- 
marck the  dawn  began  to  break.  Both  William  I  and  Bismarck 
were  of  one  mind  as  to  the  future  of  Prussia  and  the  task  which 
lay  before  her.  The  conditions  just  described  and  the  increas- 
ing possibility  of  a  general  European  conflict  involving  the 
great  states  of  Europe,  so  apparent  in  1859  (sec.  113),  showed 
the  necessity  of  a  strong  army  and  of  military  prestige.  When 
William  I  came  to  the  throne  he  was  a  man  of  over  sixty,  wuuam  i 
called  to  take  up  a  great  task  in  what  seemed  to  be  the  very 
evening  of  life,  not  knowing  at  what  moment  death  might 
call  him  to  lay  it  down.  He  was  possessed  of  a  vigorous  con- 
stitution, however,  and  contrary  to  his  own  expectations  and 
those  of  his  people,  it  was  given  him  to  pass  another  quarter- 
century  and  more  in  the  service  of  his  country  —  the  most 
important  period  of  his  entire  life.  He  was  a  soldier  by  train- 
ing, having  seen  service  as  far  back  as  the  War  of  Liberation 
(sec.  80),  and  he  believed  in  the  army.  He  was  not  a  clever 
man,  nor  a  great  statesman;  he  was  honest,  straightforward, 
and  possessed  of  a  large  measure  of  common  sense.  To  his 
ministers  he  gave  his  entire  support,  although  often  doubting 
the  wisdom  of  their  measures.  He  presented  a  great  contrast 
to  the  man  whom  he  called  to  his  side  in  1862  to  be  the  pilot 
of  the  fortunes  of  the  HohenzoUerns.  Bismarck  had  begun  his  Bismarck 
poHtical  career  as  the  friend  of  Austria.  After  serving  as  a 
delegate  in  the  meetings  of  the  Confederation,  his  eyes  had 
been  opened  and  he  became  her  confirmed  enemy.  Besides, 
he  was  convinced  that  there  was  only  one  way  to  make  Prussia 
the  leader  of  Germany,  and  that  was  by  force.  He  belonged 
to  the  class  which  in  England  was  known  as  the  country 
squires.  His  was  a  big  figure,  with  a  massive  head,  from 
which  shone  piercing  eyes  crowned  by  shaggy  eyebrows.  He 
was  a  master  of  duplicity,  and  yet  with  all  his  Ues  and  subter- 
fuges he  combined  a  certain  frankness  and  sincerity  which  was 
even  more  deceptive  than  his  falsehoods.  Although  deeply 
rehgious,  he  took  care  not  to  let  his  piety  interfere  with  his 


276    ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Beginnings 
of  Prussian 
Militarism  J 


Struggle  with 
the   Legislature 


•'  Blood 
and  Iron ' 


diplomacy,  and  presents,  therefore,  a  curious  combination 
upon  which  it  is  difficult  to  pass  judgment.  Brutal  and  over- 
bearing when  master  of  the  situation,  he  was  incHned  to  give 
utterance  to  harsh,  biting,  epigrammatic  statements  when 
brought  face  to  face  with  his  adversaries.  He  was  possessed 
of  one  aim,  and  that  aim  was  never  contaminated  by  personal 
or  sordid  motives.  In  this  respect  he  was  a  true  patriot,  being 
willing  to  bear  the  brunt  of  all  criticism  and  opposition  for  the 
sake  of  the  country  whose  interests  he  served. 

116.  Bismarck  and  the  Reform  of  the  Army.  —  Bismarck 
was  called  to  the  king's  side  at  a  critical  moment  in  Prussia's 
existence.  William  I  had  set  himself  to  the  task  of  reorganizing 
the  army  and  of  enforcing  the  custom  of  universal  service  which 
had  been  instituted  fifty  years  before  in  the  effort  to  expel 
Napoleon.  Although  the  law  provided  for  three  years  of  service, 
it  was  only  possible  with  the  moneys  available  to  provide  for 
two.  Many  were  escaping  the  burden  altogether,  as  there 
were  not  enough  regiments  organized  to  receive  the  recruits. 
WilHam  I  immediately  enlarged  these  regiments,  thereby  increas- 
ing the  number  of  recruits  from  40,000  to  60,000,  and  restored 
the  three  years  of  service.  His  plans  were  opposed  by  the  Prus- 
sian Assembly,  which  objected  to  the  financial  burden  involved. 
Then  ensued  a  struggle  between  the  king  and  the  legislature, 
comparable  in  some  respects  to  that  between  Charles  I  and  his 
parHament,  and  it  seemed  as  though  one  or  the  other  must 
yield  or  a  revolution  ensue.  Finally,  in  1862,  the  legislature,  i.e. 
the  lower  house,  where  the  opposition  centred,  absolutely 
refused  to  sanction  any  further  expenditures  for  the  army.  The 
king  was  on  the  point  of  abdicating  when  he  was  persuaded  to 
call  to  his  assistance  Otto  von  Bismarck.  The  king  and  the  new 
minister  soon  came  to  an  understanding,  and  for  the  next  four 
years  Bismarck  bullied  and  threatened  and  browbeat  the 
opponents  of  the  king's  plans,  maintaining  them  successfully 
against  all  opposition.  The  budget  was  framed  and  taxes  col- 
lected without  the  sanction  of  the  lower  house,  king  and  minister 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  277 

taking  refuge  behind  the  wording  of  the  constitution,  which  was 
twisted  to  suit  their  plans. 

The  newly  created  army  was  soon  needed,  as  trouble  arose  The  Danish 
between  Denmark  and  the  Confederation  over  the  provinces  ^^ 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein.    The  difficulty  was  with  reference 
to  the  possession  of  these  two  provinces  —  a  question  which  had 
already  disturbed  the  peace  not  alone  of  Germany  but  of  all 
Europe.    The  rival  claims  and  conflicting  interests  at  stake  are 
difficult  of  analysis.   The  English  statesman,  Lord  Palmerston,  The  ScUeswic- 
once  said  there  were  only  three  persons  who  ever  understood  the  ^oistein 

.  Question 

Schleswig-Holstein  question.  One  was  dead,  the  second  went 
mad,  and  the  third  was  himself,  and  he  had  forgotten  what  it  was 
all  about.  In  the  reopening  of  this  problem  in  1863,  Bismarck 
saw  not  alone  an  opportunity  of  using  the  newly  created  army, 
but  the  possibility  of  a  final  reckoning  with  Austria  and  ulti- 
mately the  addition  of  some  valuable  seacoast  to  the  Prussian 
dominions.  The  king  of  Denmark,  in  asserting  his  claims  to 
the  provinces,  both  of  which  were  largely  German  in  race,  lan- 
guage, and  culture,  found  himself  in  a  position  where  right 
seemed  to  be  on  the  side  of  his  opponents.  Prussia  was 
anxious  to  settle  the  question  by  force,  and  Austria  felt  obliged 
to  share  with  her  the  leadership  of  the  enterprise,  as  it  was  a 
matter  of  great  interest  to  the  Confederation  as  a  whole.  It 
would  not  do  for  her  to  seem  to  give  way  to  Prussia.  War  fol- 
lowed in  1864,  and  in  a  brief  campaign  the  Danes  were  severely 
beaten,  notwithstanding  their  heroic  defence  against  over- 
whelming odds.  They  were  finally  forced  to  conclude  a  treaty 
by  which  the  two  provinces  were  turned  over  to  the  two  victors. 
Then  arose  the  problem  of  their  administration.  An  agreement  The  convention 
was  drawn  up  between  Austria  and  Prussia  known  as  the  Con- 
vention of  Gastein.  By  its  terms,  it  would  seem  that  Bismarck 
deliberately  planned  to  make  of  the  situation  an  occasion  for 
a  break  with  Austria.  At  any  rate,  Austria  certainly  played 
into  his  hands  and  gave  him  just  the  opportunity  which  he 
was  seeking. 


278    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Causes  of 
the  War 


Attitude 
of  France 


117.  The  Seven  Weeks'  War  and  the  Exclusion  of  Austria 
from  Germany.  —  This  assignment  of  one  province  to  Austria 
and  the  other  to  Prussia  created  a  very  real  difficulty  for  Austria, 
as  her  province  of  Holstein  was  far  removed  from  the  seat  of 
government  and,  had  the  truth  been  known,  she  would  probably 
have  been  glad  to  be  rid  of  it.  That  Bismarck  was  seeking  to 
embarrass  Austria  and  provoke  her  indignation  seems  to  be 
shown  by  the  conclusion  at  this  time  of  a  commercial  treaty 
between  the  Zollverein  and  the  Italian  kingdom.  When  Austria 
showed  her  resentment  by  countenancing  certain  claims  to  the 
two  duchies  which  were  put  forth  by  a  native  prince,  the  way 
was  prepared  for  an  open  break.  Austria's  act  was  popular  in 
Germany  but  was  contrary  to  the  Treaty  of  Gastein.  Austria, 
however,  declared  the  treaty  at  an  end  and  appealed  to  the 
Diet  of  the  German  Confederation  to  sustain  her  in  this  action 
against  Prussia.  When  the  diet  ordered  the  mobilization  of 
troops,  the  Prussian  envoy  declared  Prussia  to  be  no  longer 
bound  by  the  terms  of  the  Confederation  and  laid  before  the 
members  proposals  for  a  new  union  which  should  exclude 
Austria  and  accept  Prussia  instead  as  the  head  of  the  organi- 
zation. This  invitation  was  spurned  by  many  of  the  states, 
and  war  followed.  Prussia  not  only  faced  Austria  but  almost 
all  of  Germany,  as  powerful  states  like  Hanover  lined  up  with 
Austria.  Bismarck  had  already  forestalled  the  possibility  of 
European  interference.  The  greatest  source  of  danger  was 
from  France,  because  of  her  ambitious  ruler,  who  had  long 
sought  to  regulate  not  only  French  affairs  but  those  of  Europe 
as  well.  An  alliance  with  Italy  had  been  secured  by  the 
promise  of  Venetia,  and,  in  an  interview  at  Biarritz,  Bis- 
marck secured  the  friendly  neutrality  of  Napoleon  III,  prob- 
ably inspiring  him  with  the  hope  that  this  attitude  would  be 
rewarded  either  by  some  cession  of  territory  or  by  a  similar 
benevolent  neutrality  when  he  should  undertake  to  carry  out 
some  of  those  schemes  which  had  long  been  fermenting  in  his 
brain.    Napoleon  III  met  his  match  as  an  intriguer  in  his  deal- 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  279 

ings  with  the  great  Chancellor  a^d  was  cleverly  outwitted,  as 
the  future  was  to  show. 

The  armies  of  Prussia  were  so  skilfully  handled  under  the  The  HombUnc 
masterly  guidance  of  the  great  strategist,  Von  Moltke,  that  the  °'  ^^^^ 
struggle  which  Napoleon  III  had  hoped  would  last  for  at  least 
two  years,  or  until  both  were  exhausted,  was  terminated  inside 
of  seven  weeks.     Forces  were  first  despatched  against  Prussia's 
foes  in  north  Germany,  and  a  concentration  of  the  Prussian 
forces  on  the  plains   of   Bohemia   made  easy   the   defeat  of 
Austria's  great  army  of  250,000.    This  battle,  which  is  known  s«dow« 
as  Sadowa  or  Koniggratz,  was,  up  to  this  time,  one  of  the 
greatest  conflicts  in  history  in  the  number  of  forces  engaged. 
The  Austrians  lost  40,000  in  dead,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 
Its   results  were  decisive,  as   negotiations   were   immediately 
opened  for  peace,  notwithstanding  the  success  of  the  Austrians 
against  the  Italians  on  land  at  Custozza  and  at  sea  in  the 
battle  of  Lissa.    Bismarck  was  careful  not  to  offend  Austria 
unduly  in  the  terms  which  he  offered,  as  he  foresaw  that  he 
might  sorely  need  her  friendship  in  the  near  future.    He  did 
not,  therefore,  ask  for  any  cession  of  Austrian  territory  except 
Venetia,  and  was  content  with  the  annexation  to  Prussia  of 
Schleswig    and    Holstein,    Hanover,   Hesse-Homburg,    Hesse- 
Cassel,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort,  and  with  the  incorporation  of 
the  remaining  states  of  northern  Germany  in  the  new  con-  The  North 
federation  known  as  the  North  German  Confederation,  which  con^rauon 
was  formed  under  Prussian  leadership.    Austria  was  excluded 
from  this  or  any  future  arrangement. 

The  Confederation  was  composed  of  twenty-two  states,  i.e. 
of  all  the  German  states  except  those  of  the  South,  viz.,  the 
kingdoms  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  and  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Baden.  It  was  a  federal  union,  as  all  the  states  retained 
control  of  their  internal  affairs.  The  government  was  com- 
posed of  a  Reichstag  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  a  Bundes- 
rathj  or  federal  council  representing  the  governments  of  the 
separate  states  and  an   hereditary  president,   the   King  of 


28o    ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Prussia,  assisted  by  a  chancellor.  Provision  was  made  for  a 
powerful  army,  organized  on  the  Prussian  model  and  placed 
under  Prussian  leadership.  By  the  organization  of  the  North 
German  Confederation,  Bismarck  had  perfected  the  mihtary 
union  of-  Germany.  It  now  remained  for  him  to  realize  a 
poUtical  union. 

The  exclusion  of  Austria  from  Germany  was  followed  immedi- 
ately by  an  attempt  of  the  former  to  set  her  own  house  in  order. 
Ever  since  the  Revolution  of  1848  there  had  been  unrest  in  the 
Austrian  territories.  For  ten  years  after  the  revolution  reaction 
had  reigned  supreme  and  the  German  element  alone  had  received 
recognition.  This  condition  could  not  last,  as  a  strong  nation- 
alistic feeling  was  shown  by  the  Magyar  element  in  Hungary. 
"While  the  government  was  experimenting  first  with  a  federal 
and  then  with  a  centralized  system  of  administration,  the  Seven 
Weeks'  War  broke  out.  The  close  of  the  war  (1867)  saw  the 
settlement  of  the  relations  between  Austria  and  the  Kingdom 
The  Ausgieich  of  Hungary  by  the  Ausgleich  or  Compromise.  By  these  ar- 
°f  fi°™^^°°^^®  rangements  Austria  and  Hungary  each  formed  entirely  inde- 
pendent kingdoms  with  Francis  Joseph  as  the  ruler  over  the 
two.  The  crown  was  to  be  hereditary  in  the  Hapsburg  family. 
Each  kingdom  was  to  have  its  separate  organization  consisting  of 
a  ministry  and  a  diet  or  legislature  composed  of  two  houses. 
Provision  was  made  for  a  common  ministry  composed  of  three 
ministers,  of  foreign  affairs,  of  war,  and  of  finance.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  group  of  ministers,  delegations  elected  by  the 
Hungarian  diet  and  the  Austrian  parHament  met  twice  a 
year  to  consider  matters  of  common  interest  to  both  realms, 
such  as  relations  with  outside  states,  and  especially  to  pass 
upon  the  budget  submitted  by  the  common  ministry.  Each 
The  Dual  monarchy  was  also  to  have  its  own  postal  system.     The  two 

Monarchy  interlocked  kingdoms   were  known    thenceforth    as   the  dual 

monarchy.  Although  the  principle  of  nationality  was  not  fully 
recognized,  a  long  step  was  taken  in  that  direction.  The  em- 
peror issued  a  new  constitutional  law  in  December  of  this 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  281 

same  year  (1867),  proclaiming  equal  rights  for  all  the  nation- 
alities composing  the  empire  and  guaranteeing  to  each  the 
right  to  maintain  and  cultivate  its  own  language. 

118.  Intrigues  and  Enterprises  of  Napoleon  III.  —  There 
was  still  south  Germany  to  be  won  before  Bismarck's  work  was 
complete.  In  the  recent  conflict  these  states  had  adhered  to 
Austria  and  were  little  inclined  to  follow  the  lead  of  Prussia. 
Bismarck's  opportunity  to  complete  his  task  came  as  the  result 
of  the  activities  of  Napoleon  III.  The  disappointment  of  the 
latter  that  the  war  had  terminated  so  quickly  was  keen,  but  his 
vanity  had  been  flattered  by  the  fact  that  he  had  been  called 
in  as  mediator  and  that  Venice  had  been  turned  over  to  him  to 
be  transferred  to  Italy.  He  now  looked  to  Bismarck  for  the 
reward  of  his  neutrality  —  for  the  Httle  trinkgeld,  as  his  enemies 
called  it,  which  his  services  seemed  to  demand.  All  of  his 
suggestions  for  an  increase  of  French  territory  at  the  expense 
of  the  neighbors  upon  his  northern  frontier  were  not  only 
flouted  but  were  revealed  to  the  intended  victims,  and  the 
emperor  soon  found  himseK  an  object  of  suspicion  in  every 
quarter.  So  great  was  the  fear  which  these  overtures  aroused  Alliance 
among  the  south  German  states  that  they  secretly  alUed  them-  q^^^  sut 
selves  with  Prussia  in  the  event  of  a  war  breaking  out  between  with  Prussu 
them  and  France. 

The  war  cloud  was  fast  forming  between  France  and  Prussia. 
Napoleon  III  had  not  only  been  thwarted  in  his  ambitions  to 
profit  by  the  misfortunes  of  his  neighbors  and  to  extend  the 
frontiers  of  his  empire  to  the  Rhine,  but  had  suffered  a  severe 
reverse  in  the  new  world.  As  early  as  i860  he  had  conceived 
the  idea  of  reviving  a  great  Latin  empire  in  the  Western 
hemisphere,  where  French  influence  should  predominate.  The 
opportunity  came  with  a  revolution  in  Mexico.  The  successful  Napoleon  m 
leader  brought  upon  himseK  European  intervention  by  repudiat-  ^  Mexico 
ing  certain  debts  owed  by  the  Mexican  government  to  its  foreign 
creditor*,  among  whom  were  France  and  Spain.  Napoleon  III 
suggested  an  expedition  to  bring  the  Mexicans  to  terms,  and  his 


282     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Interference 
of  the 
United  States 


The  Question 
of  the  Spanish 
Succession 


proposal  was  accepted  and  an  army  despatched  in  1861.  But 
when  his  aUies  saw  that  the  recovery  of  these  moneys  was 
merely  a  pretext  to  shape  the  future  of  Mexico,  they  quickly 
abandoned  the  enterprise.  Napoleon  thereupon  sent  larger 
forces  and  proposed  to  one  of  the  factions  in  Mexico  the  accept- 
ance as  their  emperor  of  the  Archduke  Maximihan,  the  brother 
of  the  ruler  of  Austria  and  one  time  governor  of  northern  Italy. 
He  hoped  by  this  suggestion  to  win  the  support  of  Austria  and 
to  square  himself  with  the  Pope  and  the  orthodox  Catholics, 
whose  support  he  had  lost  by  his  attitude  towards  Italy.  Vari- 
ous circumstances  combined  to  bring  about  the  failure  of  the 
project.  Too  great  a  distance  intervened  between  Mexico  and 
the  base  of  operations,  and  unfortunately  for  his  plans  the 
United  States,  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  preoccupied  with 
the  Civil  War,  now  interfered  (1865)  and,  invoking  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  adopted  a  threatening  attitude  toward  Napoleon. 
He  was  therefore  obliged  to  abandon  his  candidate,  and  the 
Emperor  Maximilian,  now  forced  to  depend  upon  his  own  in- 
adequate resources,  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  hostile  fac- 
tion and  was  condemned  to  death  and  shot.  The  news  of  this 
failure  was  a  serious  blow  to  the  prestige  of  the  emperor,  not 
alone  in  Europe  but  in  France  as  well.  He  now  felt  it  to  be 
imperative  to  strike  some  blow  in  Europe  which  should  coun- 
teract the  effects  of  this  catastrophe  and  give  his  dynasty  in 
France  a  new  lease  of  life.  The  -most  popular  move  he  could 
make  was  against  Prussia,  which  indeed,  if  unchecked, 
threatened  soon  to  possess  herself  of  the  commanding  position 
which  he  had  sought  to  secure  for  France. 

119.  Outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  War.  —  An  opportu- 
nity soon  presented  itself  in  the  effort  to  fill  the  Spanish  throne, 
which  had  become  vacant  through  a  revolution.  Bismarck  is 
said  to  have  suggested  as  a  candidate  Leopold  of  HohenzoUern, 
a  distant  relative  of  the  Prussian  king,  with  the  ulterior  purpose 
of  stirring  up  strife  with  France.  Whatever  his  part  may  have 
been,  this  candidacy  aroused  great  opposition  in  France.     "If 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON  III 


283 


284     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Trickery  of 
Bismarck 


Interview 
at  Ems 


Prussia  is  permitted  to  install  a  proconsul  upon  our  frontiers,  if 
the  news  is  not  false,"  declared  one  writer,  "we  are  38,000,000 
prisoners."  A  protest  was  immediately  lodged  with  the  king  of 
Prussia,  as  the  head  of  the  HohenzoUern  family.  He  was  asked 
to  use  his  influence  to  secure  the  withdrawal  of  the  candidacy 
of  his  relative.  As  the  result  of  these  efforts  and  the  friendly 
intervention  of  England,  Austria  and  Russia,  Leopold  refused 
to  allow  his  name  to  be  considered.  By  this  time  the  temper  of 
the  French  people  had  been  aroused  to  fever  heat,  and  a  strong 
war  feeling  showed  itself,  particularly  among  the  members  of 
the  legislature.  The  war  party  was  not  satisfied  with  the  act 
of  the  king  of  Prussia  in  the  renunciation  of  the  prince  but 
wished  assurances  from  him  that  his  relative  would  not  be  put 
forward  as  a  candidate  at  any  time  in  the  future.  Bismarck 
saw  in  the  situation  an  excellent  ground  for  war  and  probably 
did  all  in  his  power  to  bring  matters  to  a  crisis.  This  was  not 
difficult,  as  the  French  Minister,  Gramont,  and  the  Empress 
Eugenie,  supported  by  the  war  party,  were  utterly  devoid  of 
prudence  and  seemed  bent  on  but  one  decision,  an  appeal  to 
arms.  Acting  upon  instructions  from  his  government  the 
French  ambassador  Benedetti  sought  an  interview  with  the 
king  of  Prussia  at  Ems,  where  he  was  sojourning  for  his 
health,  to  secure  from  the  Prussian  ruler  a  complete  dis- 
avowal of  any  interest  in  this  candidacy,  present,  past,  or 
future.  The  interview  was  twisted  by  the  press  of  France  and 
of  Germany,  with  the  aid  of  Bismarck,  into  an  insult  to  Prussia 
on  the  one  hand,  and  to  France,  on  the  other.  The  French 
government,  as  perhaps  Bismarck  had  expected,  declared  war 
first,  and  with  this  move  the  carefully  laid  plans  of  Moltke  and 
Bismarck  were  put  into  immediate  execution. 

The  Franco-German  War  of  i,§7q-7i,  like  its  predecessor,  the 
Seven  Weeks'  War,  was  a  conflict  waged  on  scientific  principles. 
The  forces  were  moved  by  the  aid  of  the  railroad  and  telegraph 
like  pawns  upon  a  chess  board,  dependence  being  placed  upon 
massing  the  forces  where  they  would  deal  the  most  effective 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


285 


blows.  The  story  goes  that  Moltke,  upon  hearing  the  news 
of  the  declaration  of  war,  drew  from  a  cabinet  a  series  of  docu- 
ments in  which  every  step  in  the  mobiHzation  had  been  care- 
fully worked  out  and  that 
these  plans  were  carried 
out  almost  to  the  letter  by 
the  Prussian  staff.  The 
mobilization  of  the  French 
forces  stands  out  in  sharp 
contrast  with  the  foresight 
and  preparedness  shown 
in  Prussia.  Although  the 
French  leaders  had 
boasted  of  their  readiness, 
''even  to  the  last  button,'^ 
and  had  pointed  with  pride 
and  confidence  to  their 
achievements  upon  the 
battlefields  of  Magenta 
and  Solferino,  events  soon 
revealed  the  demoraliza- 
tion which  prevailed  and  the  political  corruption  which  every- 
where undermined  the  entire  military  organization.  Com- 
manders were  without  maps  of  the  locahties  in  which  they 
were  to  operate;  soldiers  were  without  equipment;  oflScerswere 
without  the  armies  which  they  were  supposed  to  lead.  Too 
much  confidence  was  also  placed  in  the  supposed  weakness  of 
their  adversaries.  From  almost  the  very  outset  of  the  struggle 
the  advantages  were  all  on  the  side  of  Prussia.  The  southern 
states  of  Germany  supported  her  most  loyally,  and  Napoleon 
was  not  only  disappointed  here,  but  found  himself  entirely 
isolated  in  the  struggle,  without  a  friend  in  Europe.  Bis- 
marck's plans  had  been  carefully  laid;  nowhere  was  there  a 
move  among  the  other  European  nations  to  intervene  in  behalf 
of  France. 


Gen.  von  Moltke 

Gen.  von  Moltke  was  the  military 
genius  who  planned  the  strategy  of  the 
Franco-German  War. 


PrejMredac 
of  Pmnte 


Demoralization 
of  the  French 


Isolation 
of  France 


286     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  Campaigns  The  battle-fields  of  the  war  were  upon  French  soil,  as  the 
French  attempt  to  invade  Germany  came  to  nothing.  Directed 
as  they  were  by  a  single  brain,  the  Prussian  armies  cooperated 
with  each  other  most  successfully,  whereas  the  French  forces, 
lacking  this,  were  outgeneralled  and  beaten  upon  every  impor- 


Napoleox  III  AND  Bismarck 

In  sharp  contrast  to  the  splendor  of  the  court  scene  shown  on  page  263 
is  this  scene  showing  the  broken  Emperor  Napoleon  III  after  the  battle  of 
Sedan,  discussing  the  terms  of  his  surrender  with  the  haughty  Bismarck. 


tant  battle-field.  A  great  force  under  Bazaine  was  shut  up  in 
Metz,  and  Napoleon  himself,  with  another  great  force  under 
MacMahon,  was  surrounded  and  forced  to  give  battle  under 
most  unfavorable  circumstances  at  Sedan.  Then  followed  one 
of  the  most  decisive  defeats  in  history,  in  which  the  French 
army  finally  surrendered  to  forces  led  by  King  William  himself. 
Napoleon  was  taken  prisoner,  and  when  the  news  of  the  disaster 
reached  Paris  his  deposition  was  decreed  and  a  republic  pro- 
claimed.   The  battle  of  Sedan  saw  the  second  empire  pass  out  of 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III 


287 


existence.     After  his  release  Napoleon  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  Paii  of  the 
in  England.     The  large  force  shut  up  in  the  great  fortress  of  Second  Empire 
Metz  was  practically  betrayed  by  its  commander  and  disgrace- 
fully surrendered.     The  final  operations  of  the  war  centred 


Bismarck's  Peace  Terms 

Bismarck  lays  down  the  terms  of  the  conqueror  before  the  representatives 
of  the  French  nation.  At  the  right  Thiers  is  stricken  with  humiliation  at 
the  tremendous  price  which  France  must  pay  for  her  unpreparedness.  In 
the  background  Favre  has  risen  from  his  chair  as  if  to  protest  against  the 
humiliating  terms.    Bismarck  is  scornfully  indifferent  to  their  distress. 

about  the  city  of  Paris,  which  was  subjected  to  one  of  the 
severest  sieges  in  its  history. 

120.  The  Close  of  the  War  and  the  Formation  of  the  German 
Empire.  —  The  proclamation  of  the  republic  had  been  followed 
by  the  organization  of  a  Government  of  National  Defence.  The 
outcome  of  the  struggle  now  rested  largely  in  the  hands  of 


288     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  289 

Thiers   and   Gambetta.     The  former  sought   to  secure  aid,   EsubUshment 
but  without  success,  from  the  various  courts  of  Europe;  Gam-  ^J^^  ^^    ^^ 
betta  escaped  from  Paris  in  a  balloon  and  sought  to  arouse 
the  provinces  and  to  organize  new  armies  for  the  relief  of  the 
capital.    The  odds,  however,  were  too  great  to  be  overcome.    It 
is  true  that  armies  were  raised,  but  they  were  often  ill-equipped 
and  imperfectly  drilled.     Although  they  displayed  great  valor 
they  were  no  match  for  the  splendid  military  machine  created  by 
the  genius  and  foresight  of  their  antagonists.    Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine had  been  entirely  lost  in  the  opening  campaigns;  the  invest- 
ment of  Paris  was  more  and  more  complete,  so  that  food  became  siege  of  Paris 
scarce  and  the  hardships  of  the  siege  were  sorely  felt.     Negotia- 
tions were  opened  for  peace.     Although   the   Government  of 
National  Defence  had  declared  that  they  would  not  cede  one 
inch  of  French  soil,  they  were  forced  to  accept  the  harsh  terms 
imposed  by  their  conquerors  —  the  cession  of  Alsace  and  Lor-  Terms  of  Peace 
raine  with  the  great  fortresses  of  Metz  and  Strasburg,  which 
maintained  an  open  door  into  French  territory,  and  the  payment 
within  three  years  of  what  appeared  in  those  days  to  be  a  huge 
war  indemnity,  $1,000,000,000. 

The  terms  were  signed  by  the  officials  of  the  newly  created  EstabUshment 
German  Empire,  which  received  its  finishing  touches  while  the 
siege  of  Paris  was  still  in  progress.     Bismarck  cleverly  prevailed 
upon  some  of  the  south  German  princes  to  invite  King  William 
of  Prussia  to  be  the  ruler  of  united  Germany,  and  amid  great 
acclamations  he  was  proclaimed  German  Emperor  at  a  mag- 
nificent ceremony  in  the  hall  of  mirrors  of  the  palace  at  Ver- 
sailles.     The    form   of    government  adopted   for    the    North 
German  Confederation  in  1867  became  the  basis  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  new  German  Empire.    Had  the  step  now  taken 
depended  upon  King  William  of  Prussia  alone,  it  is  doubtful  if 
he  would  have  taken  it  at  all,  as  he  had  more  than  once  hesitated 
in  crises  of  this  sort.    The  Iron  Chancellor,  however,  was  at  his  Triumph 
elbow  and  overcame  by  clever  management  any  scruples  which  p^^J^ 
he  might  have  had.     Long  days  and  nights  he  had  labored  to 


of  the 
German  Empire 


of  Bismarck's 


^90     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  291 

bring  the  opportunity  to  pass  and  he  did  not  propose  to  let  the 
prize  slip  through  his  fingers.  The  policy  of  blood  and  iron 
had  triumphed.  The  success  of  the  work  the  future  was  to 
demonstrate.     - 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  Describe  the  February  revolution.  2.  Explain  why  the  socialists  were 
temporarily  in  control  and  what  results  followed.  3.  Show  how  the  capi- 
talists regained  control  of  the  government.  4.  Explain  the  electoral  law  of 
May,  1850.  5.  Describe  the  reestabUshment  of  the,  empire.  6.  Compare  the 
coup-d'etat  of  Napoleon  I  with  that  of  Louis  Nap)oleon.  7.  Show  the  des- 
potic character  of  Napoleon  Ill's  government.  8.  Prove  the  prosperity  of 
France  under  his  rule.  9.  What  was  Mettemich's  estimate  of  the  February 
revolution  in  France?  10.  Summarize  the  history  of  Switzerland  from 
1814  to  1848.  II.  Discuss  the  problem  of  nationaUty  in  Austria-Hungary. 
12.  Give  a  biographical  sketch  of  Kossuth.  13.  Give  an  account  of  the 
March  revolution  in  Vienna.  14.  What  became  of  Metternich?  15,  De- 
scribe the  reforms  in  Hungary.  16.  What  reforms  were  demanded  by  Lom- 
bardy-Venetia?  17.  Describe  the  meeting  of  the  national  assembly  at 
Frankfort.  18.  Give  an  account  of  the  failure  of  the  revolution  in  Bohemia 
and  Austria.  19.  Give  an  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Francis 
Joseph.  20.  Comment  upon  the  statement,  "You  Magyars  are  only  an 
island  in  an  ocean  of  Slavs."  21.  Describe  the  repubhcan  movements  in 
Italy,  1848-9.  22.  Show  how  the  king  of  Prussia  thwarted  the  attempts 
of  the  Prussian  people  to  obtain  a  constitutional  government.  23.  Give 
biographical  sketches  of  the  following:  Mazzini,  Pius  IX,  Victor  Emmanuel 
II,  Cavour,  Garibaldi.  24.  Compare  Cavour's  foreign  policy  with  that 
of  Italy  today.  25.  Discuss  Napoleon  Ill's  r6le  in  ItaUan  unification.  26. 
How  was  the  creation  of  united  Italy  related  to  the  creation  of  the  modem 
German  empire?  27.  Describe  the  Itahan  constitution.  28.  What  is  the 
present  relation  between  the  kingdom  of  Italy  and  the  Pope?  29.  Explain 
how  economic  conditions  paved  the  way  for  political  union  in  Germany. 
30.  Was  Bismarck  responsible  for  the  European  War  of  1914?  31.  De- 
scribe the  Schleswig-Holstein  affair.  32.  What  were  the  two  aims  in  forming 
the  North  German  Confederation?  33.  Give  an  account  of  the  Maxi- 
miUan  episode.  34.  Show  the  bearing  of  each  of  the  following  on  the 
Franco-German  war:  the  question  of  the  Spanish  candidature,  the  Ems 
despatch,  the  desire  of  Prussia  for  leadership  in  Germany.  35.  Discuss  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  ending  this  war  in  the  light  of  the  European  War  of  19 14. 

Collateral  Reading 
.    I.  The  Second  Republic  and  the  Founding  of  the  Second  Empire. 
Hazen,  Europe  since  18 15,  pp.  187-214.     Robinson  and  Beard,  De- 
velopment of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  II,  pp.  59-71  •    Fyffe,  History 


292     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

of  Modern  Europe,  pp.  809-23.  Andrews,  Historical  Develop- 
ment of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  320-62;  Vol.  II,  pp.  1-41. 
Jane,  Metternich  to  Bismarck,  pp.  156-62,  184-9.  Hawkesworth, 
The  Last  Century  in  Europe,  pp.  206-11,  253-61.  Hayes,  Mod- 
ern Europe.  Vol.  II,  pp.  150-63. 
II.  Cavour  and  the  Creation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Jeffery,  The  New  Europe,  pp.  270-83.  Ogg,  Governments  of  Europe, 
PP-  353~98.  Hazen,  pp.  215-39.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  84-6,  90-8.  Fyffe,  pp.  715-8,  738-9,  742-7,  770-81,  866- 
908.  Andrews,  Vol.  II,  pp.  91-145.  Seignobos,  Contemporary 
Civilization,  pp.  269-81.  Stillman,  Union  of  Italy,  1815-95. 
Cesaresco,  Cavour,  pp.  73-220.    Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  163-75. 

III.  Bismarck  and  German  Unity. 

Hazen,  pp.  240-71.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  79-80,  86-9, 
109-18.  Priest,  Germany  since  1740,  pp.  91-113.  Henderson, 
Short  History  of  Germany,  Vol.  II,  pp.  348-410.  Seignobos, 
pp.  281-99.  Ogg,  pp.  193-204.  Hawkesworth,  pp.  308-28.  Jane, 
pp.  208-29.  Headlam,  Bismarck,  pp.  162-314.  Hayes,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  180-206. 

IV.  The  Franco-German  War. 

Hazen,  pp.   285-302.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.   118-23. 
Jeffery,  pp.  324-43.     Priest,  pp.   113-9.     Henderson,  Vol.   II, 
pp.  411-50.   Jane,  pp.  230-52.    Hawkesworth,  pp.  329-46.   Head- 
lam, pp.  315-76.     Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  175-80,  198-201. 
V.  Spain  and  Portugal  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
Clarke,  Modern  Spain,  1815-98.     Hazen,  pp.  564-78. 
Ogg,  pp.  603-46.     Gooch,  History  of  Our  Time,  pp.  65-81. 
VI.  The  Scandinavian  States. 

Hazen,  pp.  592-600.     Ogg,  pp.  553-6oi. 
VII.  The  Low  Countries. 

Hazen,  pp.  579-83.    Ogg,  pp.  517-51. 

Source  Studies 

1.  Louis  Blanc's  version  of  the  workshop  experiment  of  1848.     Robinson 

and  Beard,  Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  Vol.  II,  pp.  82-4. 

2.  Dr.  Evans's  characterization  of  Napoleon  III.    Ihid.,  pp.  92-4. 

3.  Signs  of  revolt  in  Venetia  and  Lombardy,  1848.     Ihid.,  pp.  96-7. 

4.  Decree  estabUshing  the  Roman  republic,  1849.    Ihid.,  pp.  98-9. 

5.  Kossuth's  address  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.    Ihid.,  pp.  103-8. 

6.  Mazzini's  instructions  to  the  members  of  Young  Italy.    Ihid.,  pp.  1 15-8. 

7.  Cavour's  views.    Ihid.,  pp.  118-9. 

8.  Napoleon  III  justifies  his  intervention  in  Italy.     Ihid.,  pp.  122-3. 

9.  Garibaldi  describes  his  work  in  Sicily  and  Naples.    Ihid.,  pp.  126-8. 

10.  Pope  Pius  IX  on  the  unification  of  Italy.    Ihid.,  p.  130. 

11.  A  review  of  the  economic  situation  in  Italy,  1906.    Ihid.,  pp.  138-41. 

12.  Bismarck's  views  on  the  crisis  in  Prussia.    Ibid.,  pp.  142-4. 


THE  ASCENDANCY  OF  NAPOLEON   III  293 

13.  King  William  explains  to  his  people  the  cause  of  the  war  with  Austria. 

Ihid.,  pp.  144-6.     (Compare  with  William  IPs  explanation  of  the 
Great  War  of  19 14.) 

14.  Bismarck  and  the  Austro-Prussian  War.    Ibid.,  pp.  146-50. 

15.  Bismarck  and  the  Franco-German  War.     Ibid.,  pp.  158-61. 

16.  Proclamation  of  the  German  empire  at  Versailles.    'Ibid.,  pp.  163-5. 

17.  Basis  of  the  constitution  of  Austria-Hungary.     Ibid.,  pp.  165-8. 

18.  The  Austrian  election  of  1906.     Ibid.,  pp.  171-4. 

19.  The  undemocratic  government  of  Hungary.    Ibid.,  pp.  174-5. 

20.  Bismarck  on  cabinet  government.    Ibid.,  pp.  176-7. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  On  an  outUne  map  of  eastern  Europe  show  the  territorial  divisions  at 
the  time  of  the  Crimean  War.  2.  On  an  outline  map  of  Italy  show  the  vari- 
ous steps  in  the  process  of  unification.  3.  Show  the  North  German  Confed- 
eration; illustrate  the  Schleswig-Holstein  afifair  and  the  Austro-Prussian 
War.  4.  On  a  map  of  western  Europe  show  the  campaigns  of  the  Franco- 
German  War.  5.  Draw  a  map  of  the  Empire  of  Austria-Hungary,  show  its 
poHtical  divisions,  and  indicate  the  problems  of  nationaUty. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Rise  of  the  German  customs  union 
before  1834,  p.  160.  The  customs  union  since  1834,  p.  160.  The  North 
German  Federation  and  German  Empire,  1866-71,  p.  161.  Unification  of 
Germany,  181 5-71,  p.  161.  The  unification  of  Italy,  1815-70,  p.  161.  South- 
western Crimea,  1854,  p.  164.  Distribution  of  races  in  Austria-Hungary, 
p.  168. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.  Holt.  The  German  Confederation, 
1815-66,  p.  28.  North  German  Confederation  and  German  Empire,  p.  28. 
Development  of  the  German  customs  union,  p.  28  ^     Italy  since  18 15,  p.  29. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  The  growth  of  Prussia  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  p.  20.    Growth  of  the  Hapsburg  dominions,  p.  21. 

Gardiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  Southeastern  Europe, 
1856,  p.  60. 

Robertson-Bartholomew,  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  Oxford 
Press.  France,  1814-1914,  No.  9.  Germany,  1815-1914,  No.  13.  Prussia, 
1815-1914,  No.  14.  Italy,  1815-1914,  No.  17.  Austria-Hungary,  1815- 
1914,  No.  21.     Poland,  1815-1914,  No.  28. 

Bibliography 

Andrews.    Historical  Development  of  Modern  Europe.    Two  volumes  in  one. 

Putnam. 
Cesaresco.     Cavour.    Macmillan. 

Clarke.    Modern  Spain,  1815-1898.     Cambridge  University  Press. 
Fyffe.     History  of  Modern  Europe.     Holt. 


294     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Gooch.     History  of  Our  Time.     Holt. 

Hawkesworth.     The  Last  Century  in  Europe.    Longmans. 

Hayes.     The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe.    Volume  II. 

Macmillan. 
Hazen.    Europe  since  1815.    Holt. 

Headlam.    Bismarck  and  the  Foundation  of  the  German  Empire.    Putnam. 
Henderson.    A  Short  History  of  Germany.    Two  volumes  in  one.    Macmillan. 
Jane.     Metternich  to  Bismarck,  iSi $-1878.     Oxford  University  Press. 
JefiFery.     The  New  Europe,  lySg-iSSg.     Houghton. 
Ogg.     The  Governments  of  Europe.     Macmillan. 
Priest.     Germany  since  1740.     Ginn. 

Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe.     Volume  11.     Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Readings  in  Modern  European  History.     Volume  II. 

Ginn. 
Seignobos.     Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 
StiUman.     The  Union  of  Italy.     Cambridge  University  Press. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASU  AND  IN  AFRICA 

The  Near  East  and  Africa 

121.   Conditions    Favorable    to    the    Spread    of   European 
Influence  in  Asia  and  in  Africa.  —  The  states  of  Europe  had  long 
shown  an  interest  in  colonial  enterprise  and  in  the  opening  up 
of  new  lands  across  distant  seas.     Their  activities  in  the  new 
world  and  in  the  great  empire  of  India  form  one  of  the  most 
important  aspects  of  the  history  of  modern  times.    As  late  as 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  were  still  great  areas 
of  the  earth's  surface  comparatively  untouched  and  all  but 
unknown.    The  years  which  followed  the  advent  among  the 
nations  of  the  two  new  states  of  Germany  and  Italy  witnessed  a 
renewal  of  colonial  activity  and  a  keen  interest  in  the  vast  con- 
tinents of  Asia  and  Africa.     This  interest  not  only  resulted  in 
the  spread  of  European  civilization  to  the  uttermost  parts  of 
the  earth,  but  widened  so  tremendously  the  bounds  of  European 
history  that  it  has  merged  itself  with  world  history.     The  ex-   Merging 
planation  of  this  latest  phase  of  a  movement  which  dates  back  ^5^"*^°****" 
to  the  sixteenth  century  is  to  be  found  in  part  in  the  great  andWorid 
strides  in  the  means  of  transportation  and  communication  and  ^^^°^ 
in  commerce  and  industry  which  mark  the  period  since  1870. 

The  transforming  force  of  the  industrial  revolution  in  England  The 
in  the  eighteenth  century  has  already  been  described  in  some  ^Jat^^Tnns- 
detail.    Wonderful  changes  followed  the  improvements  in  the  portation  and  of 
means  of  transportation  through  the  introduction  of  steam,  the  ^o^^u^'cation 
building  of  roads,  and  the  opening  of  canals.    Even   greater 
miracles  in  the  annihilation  of  space  and  the  saving  of  time 


296     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Roads 


Railroads 


Improvements 


mark  the  later  periods,  especially  the  epoch  which  opened  about 
1870.  The  possibilities  of  the  steamship,  the  railroad,  the 
telegraph,  and  the  canal  were  realized  as  never  before  in  the 
history  of  man,  and  the  improvements  of  the  past  half  century 
have  been  of  such  a  nature  as  to  revolutionize  these  agents  and 
accomplish  results  which  have  fallen  very  little  short  of  the 
marvellous. 

Much  perhaps  still  remains  to  be  learned  about  road  con- 
struction, but  road-building  has  everywhere  been  carried 
forward  with  greater  zeal,  making  accessible  the  most  remote 
corners  of  the  earth.  An  illustration  of  this  is  the  great  highway 
which  France  has  begun,  extending  far  out  into  the  wastes  of 
Sahara.  The  great  roads  of  France  and  Germany,  which  may 
be  compared  to  the  great  arteries  which  gave  life  and  unity  to 
the  Roman  Empire,  are  matters  of  warrantable  pride  to  the 
people  of  those  countries.  In  the  field  of  railroad  construction, 
all  the  great  transcontinental  lines,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Union  Pacific  in  our  own  country  (opened  in  1869),  have  been 
built  since  1870.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
trans-Siberian,  completed  in  1899,  and  the  Cape  to  Cairo  line, 
which  lacks  but  the  link  across  Central  Africa  from  El-Obeid  in 
the  Sudan  to  Ehzabethville  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  Besides 
these  there  are  several  great  lines  in  the  process  of  construction, 
such  as  the  Bagdad  railroad  and  the  trans-Sahara.  Steel  has 
replaced  wood  in  the  construction  of  rolling  stock;  the  block 
signal  system  has  added  materially  to  both  safety  and  speed  in 
the  movement  of  trains;  and  the  Pullman  car  has  made  travel- 
ling almost  as  comfortable  as  a  sojourn  in  a  luxurious  drawing- 
room.  The  engines  have  been  enlarged  and  improved  until 
now  we  have  great  giants  capable  at  one  and  the  same  time  of 
pulling  tremendojis  loads  and  of  maintaining  a  high  rate  of 
speed.  A  recent  invention  is  the  electric  locomotive,  which 
promises  to  effect  even  greater  changes.  There  has  also  been 
a  marked  increase  in  car  capacity  and  train  load,  thus  reduc- 
ing freight  charges.    Government  ownership,  or  stricter  govern- 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     297 

mental  control,  has  gone  hand  in  hand  with  the  perfecting  of 
railway  mechanism  and  a  better  organization  of  railway  traffic,  incrcwc 
Every  country  has  increased  its  railroad  mileage  with  each  **'**"**«« 
decade.  The  total  European  mileage  increased  from  about 
65,600  miles  in  1870  to  195,000  miles  in  1909.  In  1880  there 
were  only  584  miles  of  railroad  in  Africa;  in  1909  there  were 
19,207  miles.  The  smallness  of  the  earth  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  can  now  be  girdled  may  be  illustrated  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  globe  trotting  record  of  a  quarter  century  ago 
with  that  of  1913.  In  1890  Miss  Nelly  Bly  encircled  the  globe 
in  72  days;  while  in  1913  Joseph  Mears  made  the  journey 
in  less  than  half  the  time.  The  importance  of  the  railroad 
in  the  European  War  of  19 14  cannot  be  overestimated.  To 
a  greater  degree  than  in  any  preceding  struggle  the  fortunes 
of  war  have  hinged  upon  the  possession  of  adequate  railway 
facihties. 

The  advance  in  marine  transportation  has  been  no  less  Ocean 
remarkable  than  the  growth  of  the  railroad  and  the  extension  ^*^8***o° 
of  roads.  With  the  single  exception  of  the  "Great  Eastern," 
which  made  her  maiden  trip  in  i860,  the  largest  ships  of  the 
period  before  1880  were  less  than  one  half  the  size  of  the  ocean 
Titans  of  today,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  steamship  Unes  has 
amazed  the  sceptics  who  doubted  the  success  of  this  method  of 
transportation.  Carlyle  wrote,  on  the  occasion  of  the  launching 
of  the  ''Great  Western,"  which  was  the  first  steam  vessel  to 
cross  the  Atlantic  entirely  under  its  own  steam  (1838),  "It  was 
proved  by  calculus  that  steamers  could  never  get  across  from 
the  farthest  point  of  Ireland  to  the  nearest  of  Newfoundland; 
impelling  force,  resisting  force,  maximum  here,  minimum  there, 
by  law  of  nature,  and  geometric  demonstration ;  —  what  could 
be  done?  The  'Great  Western'  could  weigh  anchor  from  Bris- 
tol Port;  that  could  be  done.  The  Great  Western  bounding 
safely  through  the  gullets  of  the  Hudson,  threw  her  cable  out 
on  the  capstan  of  New  York,  and  left  our  still  moist  paper 
demonstration  to  dry  itself  at  leisure."    Of  the  present  trans- 


298     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

atlantic  steamship  lines  the  oldest  is  the  Cunard  started  in  1840. 
In  the  next  two  decades  the  Hamburg- American  and  North  Ger- 
man Lloyd  began  to  compete  with  the  English  firm.  Today 
there  are  forty  or  more  great  steamship  companies  throughout 
the  world,  and  the  ships  are  larger,  swifter,  and  safer  than  any- 
thing dreamed  of  by  the  pioneers  in  this  enterprise. 


The  Entrance  to  the  Suez  Canal  at  Port  Said 

In  1 84 1  de  Lesseps  studied  the  isthmus  and  planned  to  interest  the  Khedive 
in  the  construction  of  this  canal  to  connect  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas. 
The  canal  was  begun  in  1859  and  completed  in  ten  years  at  a  cost  of 
$100,000,000.  The  stock  of  this  undertaking  is  now  worth  about  $150,- 
000,000,  and  it  brings  in  over  $5,000,000  annual  revenue.  Compare  with 
these  figures  the  following  concerning  our  own  Panama  Canal.  It  was 
begun  in  1904  and  completed  in  1915  at  a  cost  of  about  $375,000,000.  It 
is  owned  by  the  United  States  government,  so  there  is  no  stock  value,  but 
the  net  earnings  for  the  first  ten  and  a  half  months  were  about  $230,000. 


Ocean  navigation  has  been  greatly  benefited  by  the  opening 
of  great  ship  canals.  The  Suez  Canal,  opened  in  1869,  connects 
the  Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea  and  thus  provi^esa  shorter 
route  from  Europe  to  the  Far' East  than  the  older  route  around 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Panama  Canal  unites  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  its  advantages  are 
obvious.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  or  Kiel  Canal,  between  the  Baltic 
and  North  Seas  (completed  in  1895),  is  of  great  strategic  and 


EXPANSION  OF   EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      299 


The  Evolution  of  the  Telephone  Exchange 

In  these  two  pictures  of  the  development  of  the  telephone,  one  notes  not 
only  the  greater  complexity  and  systemization  of  the  modem  exchange,  but 
also  that  women  have  taken  the  place  of  men  as  operators. 

commercial  importance  to  Germany.  With  many  other  lesser 
water-ways  they  bind  the  world  more  closely  together  and  are 
aiding  in  the  extension  of  European  civilization  over  the  whole 
world. 

The  operation  and  advancement  of  land  and  sea  transporta- 
tion have  been  aided  tremendously  by  the  invention  of  the  The  Telegraph 
telephone,  the  telegraph,  the  marine  telegraph  or  cable,  and 


300     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


especially  of  the  wireless  telegraph.  While  formerly  the  ocean 
held  terrors  for  all  seafarers,  and  the  man  embarking  on  a 
long  voyage  felt  as  if  he  were  gambling  with  the  elements, 
today  he  is  almost  as  safe  on  shipboard  as  in  his  own  home. 
All  ocean  Hners  carry  wireless  outfits,  and  if  any  accident 
peculiar  to  the  sea  happens  to  the  ship  as  a  result  of  storm, 
fire,  icebergs,  or  collision  with  another  vessel,  S.  O.  S.,  the 
wireless  call  for  help,  will  bring  several  ships  to  the  rescue. 
The  telegraph  on  land  permits  a  speedier  and  safer  operation 
of  trains,  the  rapid  transaction  of  business,  and  a  prompt 
coordination  of  governmental  activities  in  time,  of  national 
need,  such  as  war  or  other  disasters.  The  cable,  or  submarine 
telegraph  line,  enables  the  transmission  of  messages  carried 
by  the  electric  current  through  an  insulated  cable  under  sea 
and  ocean.  In  the  fall  of  191 5  wireless  telephonic  messages 
were  transmitted  from  Arlington,  Va.,  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
stray  messages  were  picked  up  by  operators  in  Hawaii.  As 
one  telephone  expert  says,  the  time  may  soon  come  when  one 
can  drop  a  coin  in  the  slot  of  a  telephone  in  New  York  City  and 
talk  with  a  friend  on  the  Place  de  FOpera,  Paris.  Many,  if  not 
all,  of  these  improvements  have  received  a  great  impetus  since 
1870  from  the  rapidly  expanding  industry  and  commerce  of 
the  world.  On  the  other  hand,  commerce  and  industry  have 
in  turn  prompted  the  perfecting  of  these  distance-defying 
devices  of  man. 

The  modern  organization  of  business  favors  in  a  peculiar 
manner  the  spread  of  western  ideas  throughout  the  world. 
Commerce  and  manufacturing  are  now  conducted  on  a  large 
scale,  a  circumstance  which  has  relieved  industry  from  most  of 
its  hazard,  instability,  and  wastefulness,  and  has  given  to  it 
greater  certainty,  regularity,  and  economy.  As  the  output  of 
these  great  industrial  enterprises  has  increased,  there  has  come 
the  demand  for  more  markets  and  for  a  greater  supply  of  raw 
materials.  The  older  centres  of  civilization  having  failed  to 
satisfy  these  demands,  the  nations  concerned  have  reached  out 


EXPANSION  OF   EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     301 

into  the  hitherto  unexploited  continents.  Commerce  could  not 
be  carried  on  with  these  distant  fields  were  it  not  for  the  perfec- 
tion of  banking  and  credit  facilities,  the  further  extension  and  use  Banking  and 
of  which  have  been  characteristic  of  the  past  half  century.  The  Credit  FacUiuea 
merchant  of  Liverpool,  for  example,  trades  with  the  merchant  of 
Capetown,  in  Africa,  and  is  paid  by  a  draft  on  London.  Such 
a  relation  may  explain  in  part  the  desire  of  a  nation  to  maintain 
its  sway  in  a  remote  corner  of  the  world,  or  at  least  to  create 
conditions  there  which  will  facilitate  rather  than  handicap  its 
expanding  trade  relations.  A  greater  sensitiveness  of  trade 
has,  therefore,  resulted.  Conditions  in  Europe  influence  and 
are  influenced  by  conditions  in  Africa,  in  Asia,  or  in  South 
America.  For  this  reason  it  has  seemed  to  the  European  powers 
almost  a  matter  of  self-preservation  to  secure  or  to  maintain 
dominion  over  the  farthest  corners  of  the  globe.  Thus  the 
rivalry  for  commercial  supremacy  between  nations  like  Great 
Britain  and  Germany  has  at  times  threatened  to  change  the 
map  of  distant  continents. 

The  increase  of  population  at  home,  which  followed  in  the  Over- 
wake  of  the  industrial  revolution,  often  led  to  economic  distress.  J^J^E^^^jion 
The  prospect  of  obtaining  an  easier  hving  in  the  new  trade  col- 
onies, coupled  with  the  desire  for  change  and  adventure,  main- 
tained a  more  or  less  steady  flow  of  emigration  from  Europe  to 
distant  lands  across  the  seas.  In  some  cases  the  mother  country 
viewed  with  alarm  this  loss  of  her  sturdy  sons  and  sought  some 
outlet  for  this  surplus  population  where  they  might  still  remain 
under  the  same  flag.  These  efforts  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
colonial  activities  of  Germany  and  Italy. 

The  spread  of  religious  teaching  has  always  accompanied  Rise  and 
colonial  endeavor  and  in  some  cases  actually  preceded  it.    The  ^^s^onLy  * 
Protestant  and  CathoUc  missionary  movements,    which   had  Movement 
their  origin  back  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
have  had  much  to  do  with  the  interest  of  Europe  in  Asia  and 
Africa  in  our  day.    The  course  of  political  events  in  those  con- 
tinents has  been  greatly  influenced  by  the  work  of  missionaries, 


302     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


who  in  many  instances  acted  as  explorers  and  as  empire 
builders.  Men  like  Robert  Morrison,  the  pioneer  Protestant 
missionary  in  China,  have  had  no  Httle  influence  upon  the 
awakening  of  China.  The  name  of  David  Livingstone,  a 
Scotch  missionary,  will  always  be  associated  with  the  opening 
up  of  Africa.  Medical  missionaries  also  have  been  invaluable 
in  the  work  of  spreading  European  civilization;  and  education 
and  industrial  training  have  gone  hand  in  hand  with  religious 
teaching. 

122.  European  Rivalries  and  the  Growth  of  Imperialism.  — 
It  is  only  within  the  past  half  century  that  Europe  has  begun  to 
place  a  high  value  upon  colonial  activity.  The  older  ideal  of  na- 
tionaUsm,  which  statesmen  labored  for  centuries  to  set  before 
the  people  as  the  goal  of  their  highest  endeavor,  began  about  1870 
to  be  supplanted  by  a  larger  ideal,  that  of  imperialism.  In  its 
earliest  developments  this  showed  itself  in  a  greater  sensitiveness 
to  injuries  or  insults  sustained  by  the  citizens  of  a  country.  It 
was  soon  coupled,  in  the  case  of  aggressive  nationalities,  with 
the  ambition  to  get  for  themselves  a  larger  ''place  in  the  sun"; 
to  obtain  control  over  as  much  of  the  earth's  surface  as 
possible;  and  to  be  the  creators  and  administrators  of  a  great 
far  flung  empire.  This  incentive  for  acquiring  colonies  became 
the  stronger  as  it  became  clearer  that  no  considerable  transfers 
of  territory  were  to  be  expected  in  Europe. 

A  new  force  was  now  added  to  the  various  incentives  which 
had  heretofore  prompted  the  formation  of  international  alliances, 
the  desire  to  obtain  through  united  effort  sufl&cient  strength 
to  hold  together  colonial  empires  in  distant  lands.  In  i88i 
Italy  was  angered  at  the  seizure  by  France  of  Tunis,  the  region 
of  ancient  Carthage  and  the  hoped-for  seat  of  future  Italian 
colonial  expansion.  Already  thousands  of  Italian  colonists 
had  begun  the  development  of  that  portion  of  northern  Africa. 
Accordingly,  in  1882,  Italy  joined  the  aUiance  between  Germany 
and  Austria-Hungary,  which  had  been  formed  some  years 
before  to  resist  among  other  things  Russian  aggressions  in  the 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      303 

Balkan  states.  The  accession  of  Italy  transformed  a  Dual 
Alliance  already  existing  between  Germany  and  Austria  into 
the  Triple  Alliance,  which  lasted  until  191 5  (sec.  143). 

This  alignment  of  the  central  European  powers  made  necessary 
a  new  alliance  to  offset  its  influence.  Signs  of  its  coming  were 
not  lacking.  In  1904  France  and  England  came  to  an  agreement 
concerning  their  hitherto  conflicting  interests  in  Africa.  The 
following  year,  at  a  conference  of  the  European  powers  at 
Algegiras  in  Spain,  England  disclosed  her  intention  of  support- 
ing France,  if  need  be,  against  Germany.  In  1907  a  treaty 
between  England  and  Russia  rounded  out  a  new  triple  league, 
which  is  called  the  Triple  Entente  —  entente  implying  an  under-  The  Trtpi© 
standing  rather  than  a  definite  promise  of  aid,  as  does  the  word  ****•"*• 
alliance.  The  Great  European  War,  however,  saw  this  Entente 
promptly  converted  into  an  alliance  in  every  sense  of  the  word. 
In  1914  Italy  refused  to  join  her  Teutonic  allies  on  the  ground 
that  her  alliance  with  them  demanded  her  aid  only  in  event  of 
their  fighting  a  defensive  war,  whereas  the  present  war  was 
one  of  aggression,  and  191 5  saw  the  end  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Italy  formally  joined  the  Entente  and  invaded  Austria-Hungary. 
Although  African  and  Asiatic  interests  were  perhaps  not  entirely 
responsible  for  these  combinations  of  powerful  states,  they  have 
had  no  small  part  in  creating  them  and  in  keeping  them  in 
existence. 

123.  The  Nature  and  Origin  of  the  Near  Eastern  Ques- 
tion. —  The  new  and  awakened  interest  in  Asia  and  in  Africa 
which  marks  the  period  since  1870  was  due,  as  has  been  shown,  to 
a  variety  of  causes.  It  early  manifested  itself  in  a  series  of  suc- 
cessful efforts  to  reclaim  a  large  part  of  Europe  from  the  sway 
of  an  Asiatic  people,  who  had  long  menaced  its  institutions  and 
culture.  These  were  the  Turks,  who  had  captured  Constanti-  Beginnings 
nople  in  1453  and  for  the  following  two  centuries  had  hovered  g^^^g  ttoman 
like  a  black  cloud  over  southeastern  Europe.  The  selfishness 
and  jealousies  of  so-called  Christian  nations  had  had  much  to 
do  with  the  continued  presence  of  the  Turks  upon  European  soil, 


304      ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

and  even  in  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries  they 
placed  many  an  obstacle  in  the  path  of  the  solution  of  what 
came  to  be  known  as  the  Near  Eastern  Question.  The  European 
dominions  of  Turkey  had  reached  their  widest  extent  in  the  days 
of  Louis  XIV.  With  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
however,  the  Ottoman  Empire  began  to  shrink.  A  century  ago 
the  shrinking  process  began  to  proceed  with  greater  rapidity, 
owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  Ottoman  rulers  and  to  the  sense  of 
nationality  aroused  in  their  European  subjects  by  the  stimulat- 

The  ottoman  ing  influences  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1815,  however, 
™^  ®  the  Turkish  empire  in  Europe  was  still  a  fair-sized  one.     It  in- 

cluded all  the  present  territories  of  Greece,  Bulgaria,  Roumania, 
Serbia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  a  part  of  Montenegro,  and  Albania. 
These  lands  were  inhabited  by  various  races,  but  the  pre- 

The  Race  dominant  race  was  that  of  the  Slavs,  among  whom  were  to  be 

found  the  Serbs,  Bulgars,^  and  Croats,  cousins  to  the  Russians 
and  Poles.  It  was  therefore  natural  for  the  Russian  government 
to  sympathize  with  the  Serbs  and  other  kindred  folk  in  their 
desire  for  independence  from  the  Moslem  yoke.  It  also  accorded 
with  the  traditional  aim  of  the  Tsars  to  get  control  of  Constanti- 
nople, the  original  seat  of  authority  of  the  head  of  the  Greek 
Church,  and  to  reestablish  the  Byzantine  Empire  under  Russian 

Pansiavism  control.  Russian  agents  everywhere  in  the  Sultan's  dominions 
were  early  at  work,  urging  their  fellow  Slavs  to  revolt  from 
Turkish  rule  and  to  enter  upon  a  movement  to  unite  all  the 
Slavs  under  one  leadership.  This  movement  in  its  later  phases 
has  been  called  Pansiavism. 

England's  Although  England  was  not  the  territorial  neighbor  of  Turkey, 

iier  vast  commercial  interests  made  the  Balkan  or  Near  Eastern 
question  one  of  supreme  interest.  As  early  as  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, the  Company  of  Merchants  of  the  Levant  had  begun  to 
develop  trade  with  the  possessions  of  the  Sultan  in  the  ^gean 

1  Although  Mongolian  in  origin,  the  admixture  of  Slavs  and  the  fact 
that  they  have  been  subjected  to  Slavonic  influences  seem  to  justify  their 
classification  as  a  Slav  people. 


Interests  in  the 
Near  East 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     305 

Sea  and  in  Asia  Minor.  The  settlement  of  the  Near  Eastern 
Question  would  materially  affect  these  existing  trade  relations. 
When  England  secured  a  foothold  in  India  there  were  addi- 
tional reasons  for  her  interest  in  the  Near  East  because  of  the 
trade  routes  which  passed  through  the  Turkish  dominions. 
The  Sultan  of  Turkey  was  also  Caliph  or  religious  head  of 
all  Mohammedans  throughout  the  world,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  population  of  India  had  accepted  the  dogma  that  there 
was  but  one  God  and  Mohammed  was  his  Prophet.  Austria,  Austria's 
besides  being  herseK  an  empire  with  a  large  Slavic  element,  ^**^«^ 
had  borne  the  brunt  of  the  attack  of  the  invading  Turks  since 
the  fifteenth  century  and,  now  that  the  tide  was  receding,  hoped 
to  gain  new  territorities;  yet  she  was  fearful  of  Russia's  power 
to  arouse  the  Slavs  of  her  own  dominions  against  her.  France 
had  been  the  traditional  ally  of  Turkey  since  the  day  when  by 
attacking  Vienna,  the  Sultan  had  aided  France  in  her  war  with 
Austria.  France  also  regarded  herself  as  the  protector  of  the  France's 
Roman  Catholic  subjects  of  the  Sultan,  just  as  Russia  was  the  ^ 
defender  of  Greek  CathoUcism.  With  such  a  conflict  of  interests 
beween  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  no  one  nation  could  at- 
tempt to  solve  the  riddle  of  the  Turk  without  fear  of  what 
the  other  nations  might  do. 

Very  little  headway  was  made  in  the  solution  of  the  Near 
Eastern  question  down  to  the  close  of  the  Franco-German  War. 
Whatever  results  were  attained  in  the  recovery  of  part  of 
Christian  Europe  from  the  sway  of  the  Infidel  centre  about 
the  Greek  War  for  Independence,  the  career  of  Mehemet 
AH  in  Egypt,  and  the  Crimean  War.  A  beginning  had  thus 
been  made  in  the  solution  of  the  Near  Eastern  problem. 

124.  The  War  for  Greek  Independence.  —While  Napoleon 
was  riding  to  his  fall  in  18 14,  a  secret  organization,  known  as  the 
*' Friendly  Society,"  was  being  organized  by  Greek  patriots. 
This  society  had  as  its  aim  the  liberation  of  the  Greeks  from 
Turkish  rule.  Under  the  leadership  of  Prince  Alexander  Ypsi-  Ypsiianti 
lanti,  a  member  of  the  family  of  Greek  governors  placed  over 


3o6     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Revolution 
of  1821 


The  Greek 
Republic 


Byron 


Mehemet  All 


Foreign 
Intervention 


Navarino 


the  Roumanians  by  the  Turkish  government,  the  standard  of 
revolt  was  raised  in  the  Danubian  provinces  by  a  small  army 
of  young  Greeks.  Although  this  revolution  speedily  failed, 
the  idea  of  revolution  was  not  so  easily  banished  from  the  minds 
of  the  Greek  patriots.  In  the  spring  of  182 1  a  universal  uprising 
was  launched  against  the  Turkish  garrisons,  and  by  summer  the 
whole  country  south  of  the  Malian  and  Ambracian  gulfs,  except 
the  stronger  fortresses,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  patriots.  The 
work  of  organizing  a  provisional  government  went  on  slowly, 
but  by  the  following  spring  a  constitution  had  been  adopted; 
Corinth  had  been  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  new  state;  and  the 
blue  and  white  flag  had  been  raised  over  its  citadel.  A  Turkish 
invasion  was  checked  by  the  generals  of  the  young  republic.  By 
1823,  however,  so  much  friction  had  arisen  between  the  various 
factions  that  it  was  evident  that  the  Greeks  would  not  endure 
the  rule  of  one  of  their  own  countrymen.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  the  great  English  poet  Byron  came  to  Greece  to  share  in 
the  work  of  liberation.  Civil  war  arose  between  the  factions, 
and  in  1825  the  Sultan  summoned  his  vassal  Mehemet  AH,  the 
pasha  or  governor  of  Egypt,  to  help  suppress  the  revolution. 
With  the  coming  of  Mehemet's  son  Ibrahim  to  the  Morea,  the 
district  formerly  known  as  the  Peloponnesus,  the  second  stage  of 
the  War  for  Independence  began.  The  Turkish-Egyptian  armies 
were  uniformly  successful,  even  the  AcropoHs  of  Athens  falling 
again  into  Ottoman  hands.  In  despair  the  (*eeks  looked  to  the 
great  powers  for  support  and  elected  as  president  Count  Capo 
dTstria,  a  Greek  statesman  who  had  long  been  in  the  service 
of  the  Tsar.  In  July,  1827,  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  France, 
signed  in  London  a  treaty,  pledging  immediate  intervention  on 
behalf  of  the  Greeks.  This  was  a  direct  blow  at  the  aims  and 
purposes  of  the  Holy  AUiance  and  was  contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  Prince  Metternich.  The  effects  of  this  step  were  soon  ap- 
parent. The  Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleets  were  nearly  annihi- 
lated at  the  battle  of  Navarino;  a  French  army  drove  the  Turks 
out  of  the  Morea;  and  in  the  north  the  Turks  were  defeated  in 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     307 

Boeotia  and  forced  to  withdraw.     The  War  for  Independence  EstabUshment 

was  ended.     Capo  d'Istria  now  attempted  to  rule  Greece  with  °|  G^ewe***""" 

a  firm  hand"  in  order  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  civil  strife, 

but  was  assassinated  because  of  his  severity  in  handling  the      ^^^^^ 

situation.    The  powers  then  proposed  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria 

as  king  of  Greece,  and  in  1833  he  began  his  reign. 


A  Glimpse  of  Two  Contixexts 
In  this  view,  showing  a  part  of  the  city  of  Constantinople,  one  sees  both 
Europe  and  Asia  and  the  narrow  waters  of  the  Bosphorus. 

125.  The  Struggle  between  Turkey  and  Egypt.  —  Mehemet 
Ali  of  Egypt,  to  whom  reference  has  already  been  made,  was 
more  interested  in  constructive  reforms  in  his  own  country  than 
in  the  reconquest  of  the  Greeks.  One  of  the  ablest  men  of  his 
day,  he  wished  to  extend  the  reforms  which  he  had  made  in 
Egypt  over  all  the  Ottoman  dominions.  He  sought  to  restore 
to  the  empire  of  the  Turks  some  of  its  former  prestige  and  power. 
When  his  efforts  to  carry  out  his  plans  were  thwarted  at  Con- 
stantinople by  jealous  rivals,  he  began  a  war  on  his  sovereign. 
In  this  war  he  had  the  moral  support  of  France,  for  it  was  with 


PoUcyof 
Mehemet  AU 


3o8     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Interference 
of  Russia 


Humbling  of 
Mehemet  All 


Causes 


French  assistance  that  most  of  his  reforms  had  been  introduced 
into  Egypt.  His  successful  armies  swept  over  Asia  Minor  and 
even  threatened  Constantinople.  This  success  did  not  accord 
with  the  plans  of  Europe  for  Turkey  and  when  the  Sultan 
appealed  to  Russia,  a  Russian  army  was  landed  to  oppose 
Mehemet,  who,  however,  compelled  the  Sultan  to  recognize 
him  as  ruler  of  Syria  and  adjacent  territories  as  well  as  of 
;  Egypt.  As  the  price  of  Russian  aid,  Turkey  agreed  to  close 
I  the  Dardanelles  to  the  warships  of  all  nations,  thus  placing  in 
the  hands  of  Russia  peculiar  opportunities  for  intervention  in 
Turkish  affairs.  Six  years  later  the  Sultan  reopened  the  war 
against  Mehemet,  but  was  again  defeated.  England,  Austria, 
land  Prussia  intervened  on  behalf  of  the  Sultan,  attacked 
Mehemet  Ali  in  Syria,  and  compelled  him  to  submit.  His 
Asiatic  possessions  were  taken  from  him,  but  Eg3rpt  was  given 
back  as  a  hereditary  province  under  nominal  Turkish  suzerainty.^ 
The  allies  entered  into  a  treaty  guaranteeing  the  integrity  of 
the  Turkish  Empire,  thus  postponing  the  day  when  the  fate 
of  the  Turkish  Empire  would  be  finally  determined. 

126.  Russia  and  the  Crimean  War.  ^  —  Russia  evidently 
looked  upon  this  treaty  as  merely  "a  scrap  of  paper,"  for  within 
the  next  ten  years  the  Tsar  Nicholas  I  proposed  to  England  the 
division  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  England  was  to  receive 
Egypt  and  Crete,  while  he  was  to  have  most  of  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope, including  Constantinople.^  Upon  the  refusal  of  England 
to  be  a  party  to  the  plan,  he  sought  another  excuse  for  an  attack 
on  Turkey,  namely,  his  championship  of  the  Greek  Catholics. 
Just  at  this  time  a  quarrel  had  broken  out  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Catholics  at  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  Each 
demanded  exclusive  rights  in  performing  religious  services  there 

}j  This  suzerainty  was  .ended  in  ji9i4-when  Egypt  became  formally  a 
iftlltish  Protectorate  (see  page  321).  2  See  sec.  112. 
y/s  The  Tsar  remarked  at  this  time  to  the  British  ambassador,  referring  to 
Ahe  condition  of  Turkey:  "We  have  on  our  hands  a  sick  man  —  a  very  sick 
man;  it  wiU  be  a  great  misfortune  if  one  of  these  days  he  should  slip  away 
from  us,  especially  before  all  necessary  arrangements  were  tnade.^* 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     309 

and  appealed  to  the  Turkish  government.  On  historic  grounds, 
dating  as  far  back  as  the  Crusades,  the  Roman  CathoHc  religious 
orders  had  the  weight  of  the  argument  in  their  favor.  The 
Turkish  government,  however,  in  its  anxiety  not  to  offend 
either  Napoleon  III  or  Nicholas  I,  who  stood  behind  the  two 
churches,  interpreted  these  rights  in  a  different  way  to  each 
of  the  states  concerned.  The  negotiations  were  so  handled  by 
the  British  representative  at  Constantinople  that  the  Tsar 
finally  sent  an  ultimatum  to  the  "Turkish  government,  de- 
manding a  Russian  protectorate  over  the  entire  Greek  Catholic 
Church.  This  was  in  effect  a  demand  for  as  great  a  power 
over  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Turkish  Empire  as  had  ever 
been  claimed  by  a  Gregory  VII  or  Innocent  III  in  mediaeval 
Europe,  and  neither  Turkey  nor  the  powers  of  Western  Europe, 
whose  protegee  she  had  become,  were  willing  to  grant  the  de- 
mand. The  Emperor  Napoleon  III  of  France,  moreover,  had 
a  personal  grievance  against  Russia  in  that  the  Tsar  had  not 
accorded  full  recognition  to  his  assumption  of  the  imperial  title 
besides  being  the  recognized  protector  of  Roman  Catholic  in- 
terests in  Palestine. 

The  Tsar  did  not  expect  European  intervention,  however, 
and  began  a  "crusade"  against  Turkey.    Diplomatic  notes  were 
exchanged  between  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  all  to  no  avail, 
and  in  the  year  1854  Russia  found  herself  confronted  by  an 
aUied  army  of  Turkey,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Sardinia.   The 
alUes  invaded  the  Crimean  Peninsula,  in  southern  Russia,  thus 
giving  the  war  its  name,  and  compelled  the  recall  of  the  Russian 
troops  from  the  Turkish  frontier  for  the  defence  of  Russia. 
During  the  conflict  the  warlike  Nicholas  I  died  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  more  liberal  Alexander  II  (sec.  146).    The  .Peace  The  Peace 
of  Paris  in  1856  took  from  Russia  the  protectorate  over  the  ^/J^^'^^^, 
Danubian  principalities,  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  which  were  em  ouestion 
afterwards  united  to  form  the  principality  of  Roumania  under 
^Turkish  suzerainty.     Russia  furthermore  lost  her  right  to  keep 
)a  fleet  on  the  Black  Sea.    This  war  had  several  important 


310     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The 

Macedonian 

Outrages 


Participation 
of  the 
Balkan  States 


Treaty  of 
San  Stefano 


The  Congress 
of  Berlin 


results.  It  placed  the  buffer  state  of  Roumania  between  Rus- 
sia and  Turkey;  it  won  added  recognition  to  the  plea  for  inde- 
pendence made  by  the  subject  peoples  of  the  Balkan  peninsula; 
and  besides  proved  an  important  factor  in  the  movement  for 
the  liberation  of  Italy  (sec.  113). 

127.  The  Russo-Turkish  War  and  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  — 
The  next  great  upheaval  in  the  Near  East  came  with  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  of  1877-78.  All  the  preceding  developments  were 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  consequences  which  fol- 
lowed in  its  train.  The  Tsar  Alexander  II  did  not  relinquish  the 
hope  of  his  ancestors  of  gaining  land  at  the  expense  of  Turkey. 
During  the  Franco-German  War  he  took  advantage  of  the  pre- 
occupation of  Western  Europe  by  reasserting  Russia's  right  to 
maintain  warships  on  the  Black  Sea.  Soon  after  this  event 
came  the  longed-for  opportunity  of  reopening  the  Eastern 
Question.  The  cruelties  practised  upon  the  Christians  of  the 
lower  Danubian  valley  by  the  Turks,  with  the  intent  of  terroriz- 
ing them  into  submission,  excited  the  horror  of  Europe,  especially 
of  Great  Britain.  Judging  that  the  western  powers  would  not 
repeat  the  Crimean  War  on  behalf  of  a  government  which  was 
outraging  every  humane  principle,  Russia  declared  war  and 
invaded  Turkey.  The  Roumanian  prince,  who  chafed  at  the 
nominal  suzerainty  which  Turkey  exercised  over  his  lands, 
threw  in  his  lot  with  Russia;  the  fiery  Slavs  of  Serbia  and  Mon- 
tenegro also  arose  in  rebelUon;  and  Greece  was  ready  to  enter 
the  contest  in  order  to  share  in  the  spoils.  For  a  time  it  seemed 
as  if  the  death-knell  of  Turkey  in  Europe  had  been  sounded,  but 
the  fear  that  the  Russians  might  create  a  great  vassal  Balkan 
state  was  again  raising  up  defenders  for  Turkey.  While  this 
tide  of  opposition  to  Russian  hopes  was  rising,  a  treaty  was 
signed  between  Russia  and  Turkey  at  San  Stefano  which  was 
wholly  favorable  to  the  former.  (See  map,  page  313.) 
/  The  Tsar  had  the  cup  to  his  lips,  but  the  powers  dashed  it  to 
earth  by  calling  a  general  European  Congress  at  Berlin  for  the 
summer  of  1878.     This  was  one  of  the  most  important  steps 


EXPANSION  OF   EUROPE   IN   ASIA  AND  AFRICA     31 


n>  >-i  Pi 


312     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

taken  towards  the  solution  of  the  Near  Eastern  Question  in 
modern  times.  All  the  great  powers  were  represented  by  their 
chief  statesmen,  prime  ministers,  foreign  secretaries,  and  am- 
bassadors. Bismarck  was  chosen  as  President  of  the  Congress. 
None  of  the  small  states  most  interested  in  the  decisions  of  the 
conference  were  permitted  to  share  in  these  decisions.  In  many- 
respects  it  was  as  reactionary  as  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  at 
its  doors,  in  no  small  measure,  may  be  laid  the  responsibility 
for  the  European  War  of  19 14.  The  great  Turkish  vassal 
state  of  Bulgaria,  created  by  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  was  cut 
to  pieces.  Bulgaria,  which  it  was  feared  would  be  a  satellite  of 
Russia,  was  divided  into  two  parts:  that  to  the  south  to  be 
known  for  a  few  years  as  Eastern  Roumelia  and  to  be  under 
Turkish  control;  and  another  to  the  north,  the  Principality 
of  Bulgaria,  which  was  also  to  be  dependent  upon  Turkey. 
Macedonia  was  restored  to  Turkey;  Roumania,  Serbia,  and 
Montenegro  were  made  independent  states.  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  were  turned  over  to  the  administration  of  Austria, 
although  nominally  under  Turkish  control  until  1908.  Rou- 
mania was  robbed  of  a  northern  province  by  Russia,  and  Bul- 
garia was  shorn  of  her  northeastern  territory  to  compensate 
Roumania. 

128.  The  Emergence  of  the  Balkan  States,  1878-1908.  —  For 
the  next  thirty  years  the  history  of  the  Balkan  region  is  com- 
paratively uninteresting.  It  is  marked  by  the  gradual  consoli- 
dation of  the  separate  states  and  the  gradual  disappearance  of 
Turkish  control  in  many  cases  where  the  great  powers  had  still 
Bulgaria  bolstered  up  its  shadowy  dominion.     The  Congress  of  Berlin 

I  left  the  organization  of  the  new  government  of  Bulgaria  to  the 

Russians.  They  promptly  produced  a  constitution  which  was 
apparently  very  democratic,  but  the  ruler  had  as  strong  a  check 
over  the  people  as  the  people  had  over  the  ruler.  Russia 
intended  to  retain  control  over  the  government.  The  framer  of 
this  constitution  had  not  reckoned  on  one  possibility  which  came 
to    pass  —  namely,    cooperation    between    people    and    ruler. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     313 


314     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Stambuloff 


Serbia 


Roumania 


Greece 


Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg,  a  nephew  of  the  Tsar,  was 
chosen  ruler  of  Bulgaria  and,  six  years  later,  of  Eastern  Rou- 
melia  as  well.  Russia  tried  vainly  to  prevent  him  from  assuming 
control  of  the  latter,  but  the  sympathy  of  England  was  foi 
Alexander,  and  Russia  acquiesced.  Russian  interference  in 
Bulgaria  was  responsible  in  part  for  the  abdication  of  Alexander 
in  1886,  and  in  the  following  year  Ferdinand,  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe,  accepted  the  throne.  "  Stephen  Stambuloff,  an  inn- 
keeper's son  who  had  risen  to  the  position  of  prime  minister,  was 
the  real  ruler  of  the  country  until  his  dismissal  in  1894.  He 
was  anti-Russian  in  his  sympathies  and  was  supported  in  this 
attitude  by  the  people.  His  overthrow  resulted  in  a  closer  union 
for  the  time  being  between  the  governments  of  Bulgaria  and 
Russia,  but  Ferdinand's  ambition  to  become  the  dominant 
Balkan  ruler  led  him  to  continue  the  anti-Russian  movement. 

Prince  Milan  of  Serbia,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  king 
in  1882,  felt  the  need  of  aggressive  measures  to  make  his  dynasty 
popular.  Accordingly  he  showed  a  resentment  at  the  absorption 
of  Roumelia  by  Alexander's  principality,  and  in  1885  a  short 
war  followed  between  Serbia  and  Bulgaria,  in  which  Serbia 
was  defeated.  Austria  intervened  and  prevented  Bulgaria  from 
making  any  territorial  gains,  but  the  war  gave  her  great  prestige 
and  insured  to  her  the  possession  of  Roumelia. 

Roumania  was  proclaimed  a  kingdom  in  1881.  Her  govern- 
ment is  a  constitutional  monarchy.  While  her  principal  industry 
is  agriculture,  she  has  in  recent  years  developed  manufacturing 
and  commerce  to  a  higher  point  than  that  reached  by  any  of  the 
other  Balkan  states. 

Otho  ruled  the  Greeks  for  nearly  thirty  years  (1833-62).  The 
capital  was  transferred  to  Athens,  the  ancient  wonder  city  of 
Hellas,  and  the  little  kingdom  began  a  slow  national  develop- 
ment. Her  boundaries  were  very  unsatisfactory,  as  Thessaly 
with  its  Greek  population  was  retained  by  Turkey.  There  were 
many  internal  troilbles,  legacies  of  the  unsettled  conditions  under 
Turkish  rule,  brigandage  had  to  be  suppressed,  and  the  country 


The  Gneco- 
Turkish  War, 
1897 


Crete 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     315 

was  heavily  in  debt.    At  first  the  government  was  an  absolute 
monarchy.     In  1844  Otho  granted  the  demand  for  a  parliament, 
but  the  people  were  dissatisfied  with  his  weak  foreign  policy  as 
well  as  with  his  absolute  tendencies,  and  in  1862  drove  him  from. 
the  throne.     George  I,  a  son  of  Christian  IX  of  Denmark,  suc- 
ceeded him.     England  ceded  the  Ionian  Isles  to  Greece  the 
following  year   (1864)   and 
forced  the  Sultan  in  1881   to 
cede  Thessaly.     In  1897  an  in- 
surrection in  Crete  against 
Turkish   rule  gave   Greece  a 
pretext  for  war,   but  as  she 
was   poorly  prepared   and 
failed  to  get  aid  from  the  other 
Balkan    states,   she    was  de- 
feated.   Crete,  however,   was 
temporarily  given  home  rule 
under    the    governorship    of 
Prince  George    of    Greece, 
although  nominally   under 
Turkish  rule  and  finally  was 
annexed  to  Greece  in  19 13. 

129.  The  Turkish  Revolu- 
tion and  its  Consequences. 
—  In  the  summer  of  1908  the 
Eastern   Question   reached    a 

most  acute  stage.  The  Young  Turks,  a  secret  liberal  party  of  The  Yount 
progressive  Turks  who  desired  to  inject  new  life  into  the  Otto- 
man Empire  and  thought  to  attain  this  by  moulding  their  gov- 
ernment upon  constitutional  lines  like  those  of  the  great  powers 
of  Western  Europe,  conducted  a  swift  and  bloodless  revolution 
in  Constantinople.  Having  won  over  the  army  chiefs  to  their 
plans,  they  demanded  from  the  Sultan,  Abdul  Hamid  II,  the  res- 
toration of  a  constitution  which  had  been  granted  in  the  crisis 
of  1876  but  had  never  been  put  in  operation.     Emperor  Francis 


Tsar  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria 

He  threw  in  the  lot  of  his  country 
with  the  Teutonic  allies  in  the  Euro- 
pean War  of  1914.  He  is  a  grandson 
of  Louis  Philippe  and  is  immensely 
wealthy.  He  is  also  one  of  the 
shrewdest  statesmen  of  the  present 
time. 


Turks 


3i6     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Annexation 
of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina 
by  Austria- 
Hungary 

Independence 
of  Bulgaria 


The  Turkish 

Revolution 

Completed 


The  Turco- 
Italian  and 
Balkan  Wars 


Joseph  announced  the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to 
the  empire  of  Austria-Hungary,  a  step  which  eventually  had 
much  to  do  with  precipitating  the  European  War  of  1914, 
and  almost  at  the  same  time  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  Bulgaria  from  Turkish  rule  and 
took  the  title  of  Tsar.  The  people  of  Crete  announced  their 
union  with  Greece,  and  for  a  time  it  looked  dangerously  like  a 
general  European  war.  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  adopted 
a  warlike  attitude  as  they  justified  these  breaches  of  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin.  To  add  to  the  confusion,  in  April,  1909,  the  Turkish 
army  broke  into  mutiny  against  the  Young  Turk  movement, 
and  several  leaders  lost  their  lives.  But  the  Young  Turks 
raUied,  took  Constantinople,  deposed  Abdul  Hamid,  and  placed 
his  brother  Mohammed  V  on  the  throne.  The  new  Sultan 
proved  to  be  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of  the  reforming  party, 
which  was  exactly  what  they  desired.  The  new  government 
found  its  task  a  difficult  one.  It  was  one  thing  to  set  up  a 
government  and  another  thing  to  make  this  government  satis- 
factory to  all  portions  of  the  empire. 

Scarcely  had  several  revolts  been  suppressed  when  Turkey 
was  forced  to  confront  a  foreign  enemy.  A  desire  for  conquest 
had  seized  hold  of  Italy,  and  her  eyes  were  turned  to  the  Turkish 
possession  of  Tripoli.  War  broke  out  in  191 1.  Turkey  was  no 
match  for  Italy,  and  Tripoli  became  the  Italian  province  of 
Libya.  Before  the  treaty  was  signed  ending  the  Libyan 
War,  Turkey  had  entered  upon  a  life  and  death  struggle.  The 
Balkan  states  had,  strangely  enough,  succeeded  in  patching 
up  their  differences  and  had  organized  a  league  composed  of 
Serbia,  Greece,  Montenegro,  and  Bulgaria.  They  now  launched 
themselves  upon  the  Turkish  territories  in  Europe.  The  armies 
speedily  crushed  the  Turkish  defences  and,  when  the  powers 
intervened  to  prevent  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  all  that 
remained  to  Turkey  was  the  Gallipoli  peninsula  and  the  narrow 
strip  of  land  which  stretches  along  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the 
Bosphorus.     The  victors,  however,  quarrelled  over  the  spoils, 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     317 

and  Serbia  and  Greece  combined  against  Bulgaria,  and  in  a  War  between 

brief  campaign  known  as  the  Second  Balkan  War  forced  the  ^If..®'^*^ 

latter  to  give  them  the  lion's  share  of  the  territory  gained  from 

Turkey.     This  second  war  was  to  the  advantage  of  Turkey,  for 

Bulgaria  was  forced  to  leave  in  Turkish  hands  the  important 

city  of  Adrianople,  which  she  had  won  after  a  long  and  difficult 

siege  in  the  first  war.    Turkey  in  Europe  was,  therefore,  saved 

from  complete  annihilation,  although  reduced  to  a  mere  shadow 

of  her  former  glory.     Serbia  and  Greece  were  the  chief  gainers, 

but  Bulgaria  and  Montenegro  each  gained  territory.     Because 

of  the  interference  of  the  powers,  a  new  state,  called  Albania, 

was  created  out  of  the  territory  on  the  western  coast  and  placed 

under  the  rule  of  a  German  prince.     He  was  soon  forced  to  flee, 

however,  and  the  fate  of  the  new  principality  still  hangs  in  the 

balance.^ 

The  Near  Eastern  Question  has  not  yet  been  solved.    The  The  Near 
European  War  of  19 14  has  opened  up  new  possibilities.   The  al-  ^*J*^n  ^^ 
liance  of  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  with  the  central  powers,  the  the  European 
drive  through  Serbia  in  the  autumn  of  1915,  the  participation  "^"o''^** 
of  Roumania,  in  19 16,  and  the  military  operations  about  the 
Persian  GuK  and  the  Suez  Canal,  will  all  play  their  part  in 
creating  a  new  situation  in  the  Near  East. 

130.  The  Opening  Up  of  Africa  by  the  Missionaries  and 
Explorers.  —  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  how  the  prob- 
lems presented  by  the  Near  East  involved  from  time  to 
time  the  neighboring  continent  of  Africa.  While  these  events 
were  transpiring  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  Balkan  region  this 
vast  domain  was  being  apportioned  among  the  powers  of 
Western  Europe.  This  partitioning  process  followed  close  upon 
the  heels  of  the  activities  of  the  missionaries  and  explorers. 
Previous  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  Africa  was 
all  but  unknown  and  was  rightfully  named  the  "dark  con- 
tinent."   Except  for  the  work  of  France  in  Algeria  between 

1  For  territorial  arrangement  of  the  Balkan  States,  see  map  opposite 
p.  398. 


The  "Dark 
Continent " 


3i8     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


David 
Livingstone 


Henry  M. 
Stanley 


Speke 


Baker 


Remnants  of 
Older    Colonial 
Empires 
In  Africa 


1830  and  1847  and  the  growth  of  British  dominion  in  the 
Cape  Colony,  near  the  struggUng  young  Boer  repubUcs  of  the 
Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State,  the  nations  of  Europe 
had  shown  but  little  interest  in  the  development  of  Africa. 
To  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  such  efforts  as 
had  been  put  forth  towards  ascertaining  the  nature  of  the 
country  and  its  resources  had  been  confined  to  northern  and 
northwestern  Africa.  The  heart  of  the  dark  continent  was 
laid  open  principally  through  the  work  of  David  Livingstone. 
Between  1840  and  1856  this  prince  of  explorers  opened  up 
the  region  of  the  Zambesi  and  crossed  Africa  from  ocean  to 
ocean.  His  work  as  an  explorer  and  missionary  attracted  the 
attention  of  Europe.  On  one  of  his  expeditions  the  world  was 
without  news  of  him  for  so  long  that  a  searching  party  was 
sent  out  by  the  New  York  Herald  under  the  leadership  of 
Henry  M.  Stanley,  a  newspaper  correspondent  born  in  Wales. 
Livingstone  died  in  1873  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Dark  Con- 
tinent and  his  body  was  taken  home  to  England  and  buried 
in  Britain's  Hall  of  Fame,  Westminster  Abbey.  Stanley  re- 
turned to  Africa  to  explore  the  Congo,  and  his  journeys 
through  "Darkest  Africa"  did  much  to  change  the  map  of  the 
interior  of  the  continent  from  blank  spaces  to  rivers,  lakes,  and 
mountains.  Meanwhile,  a  renewed  interest  in  the  sources  of 
the  Nile  had  led  Speke,  an  EngHsh  explorer,  in  1858,  to  the 
discovery  of  the  great  lake  just  at  the  equator,  which  he 
named  Victoria  Nyanza,  in  honor  of  England's  queen.  A  few 
years  later  another  Englishman  named  Baker  discovered  another 
source  in  a  second  lake,  which  he  named  Albert  Nyanza  in  honor 
of  the  Prince  Consort. 

When  the  advance  of  Europe  into  Africa  began,  there  were 
still  some  remnants  of  the  colonial  empires  of  the  Portuguese, 
Spanish,  and  Dutch.  These  lay  along  the  Eastern  and  Western 
coasts  and  in  South  Africa.  But  the  two  most  energetic  powers 
up  to  1873  were  France  and  England.  France  began  her  pro- 
tectorate over  Tunis..in  i88i^and  England  her  "occupation"  of 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     319 

Egypt  the  following  year.  A  wild  rush  for  territory  followed. 
Between  1884  and  1890  Germany,  Italy,  and  Belgium  joined 
with  the  powers  already  possessing  a  foothold  in  a  series  of 
treaties  setting  forth  their  respective  claims. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  interesting  appropriations  of  The  FormaHon 
territory  during  this  period  was  the  creation  of  the  Congo  Free  pree  ^Stot^^^ 
State.    Livingstone  had  directed  the  attention  of  Europe  to  the 
horrors  of  the  slave  trade,  as  carried  on  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
region  of  the  Congo  and  the  Zambesi,  and  through  his  explo- 
rations had  '  aroused  an    interest  particularly  in    Equatorial 
Africa.     It  was  his  explorations  rather  than  his  campaign  for 
humanity  that  attracted  the  attention,  among  others,  of  Leopold 
II,  King  of  the  Belgians,  through  whose  efforts  an  International  The 
Association  was  formed  for  the  ostensible  object  of  the  explora-  Association 
tion  and  civilization  of  central  Africa  (1876),  and  Stanley  was 
given  an  opportunity  to  prove  his  ability  as  a  pro-consul  in 
the    Congo  region.     The  International  Association,  however, 
fell  largely  under  the  influence  of  Leopold,  and  the  activities 
of  Belgium  in  the  Congo  prompted  other  nations  to  make  claims 
in  this  region.     Accordingly  a  conference  of  the  great  powers  of  Conference  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States  was  held  in  Berlin  in  1884.    This 
marked  an  epoch  in  Europe's  relations  with  the  Dark  Continent, 
as  it  was  followed  by  other  conferences  and  treaties  which  sought 
to  delimit  clearly  each  country's  interest  upon  African  soil. 
This  particular  conference  established  the   Congo  Free  State,  The  Congo 
an  independent  state,  occupying  most  of  that  river's  basin,  and 
it  was  ordered  that  all  nations  should  have  equal  opportunities 
of  trade  within  it.     Leopold  now  unmasked  himself,  and  it 
became  evident  that  he  had  engineered  the  whole  deal  for  his 
own  personal  profit.    He  allowed  his  agents  to  commit  unspeak-  The  Congo 
able  cruelties  against  the  natives  in  order  to  terrify  them  into  ^**"°<^^"** 
bringing  in  great  quantities  of  rubber  and  other  African  products 
for  his  own  enrichment.     In  1885  he  notified  the  powers  that  he 
had  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  Congo  State.     Its  union  with 
Belgium  was  merely  a  personal  one,  both  being  under  the  same 


320     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Withdrawal 
of  France 


The  Loss  and 
Recovery  of 
the  Sudan 


sovereign.  His  autocratic  rule  and  intolerable  cruelties  were  so 
criticised  by  all  the  other  nations  that  in  1908  the  Belgian  gov- 
ernment converted  the  Congo  Free  State  into  a  Belgian  colony, 
subject  to  the  rule  of  the  parliament. 

131.  England  and  France  in  Egypt.  —  Meanwhile  England 
and  France  were  extending  their  control  over  Egypt.  The 
fifth  ruler  of  Egj^pt  in  the  family  of  Mehemet  Ali  was  an  ex- 
travagant man  by  the  name  of  Ismail.  During  his  reign  the 
Suez  Canal  was  constructed.  This  was  only  one  of  his  many 
enterprises,  some  of  which  were  of  the  most  spendthrift  char- 
acter. So  lavish  was  he  in  his  expenditures  that  the  public 
debt  of  Egypt  rose  from  $15,000,000  to  nearly  $450,000,000 
within  a  little  over  a  decade.  In  1875  Great  Britain  acquired 
for  a  comparatively  small  sum  the  Khedive's^  shares  in  the 
Suez  Canal  Company,  owing  to  his  financial  needs.  Both 
France  and  England  continued  to  make  loans  to  the  Egyptian 
government  until  they  felt  forced  to  institute  a  dual  control 
over  Egypt  to  safeguard  these  interests. 

Ismail  resented  this  interference  with  his  country,  but  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  1879  in  favor  of  his  son  Tewfik,  who  proved 
more  compliant  with  the  wishes  of  Great  Britain.  But  a  spirit 
of  "Egypt  for  the  Egyptians"  seized  possession  of  the  Khedive's 
army.  Under  the  leadership  of  Arabi  Pasha,  a  revolt  spread 
against  foreign  control,  which  soon  got  beyond  the  power  of 
Tewfik  to  suppress.  In  order  to  preserve  the  financial  interests 
of  Europeans  in  ^gypt,  military  intervention  was  necessary. 
At  this  juncture  France  refused  to  cooperate  and  England  under- 
took the  task  alone.  This  act  terminated  France's  active  con- 
nection with  Egypt.  In  a  few  months  the  revolt  was  suppressed 
and  Arabi  was  exiled  to  Ceylon  (1882).  England  now  assumed 
the  r61e  of  "adviser"  to  the  Khedive,  but  quickly  let  him  un- 
derstand that  this  meant  that  she  was  his  guardian  as  well. 

This  relationship  brought  with  it  a  serious  responsibihty. 
There  had  arisen  in  the  Sudan,  a  province  long  misruled  by 
1  The  ojB5cial  title  of  the  ruler  of  Egypt. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     321 

Egypt,  a  revolt  half  religious  and  half  political.     A  leader  called 
the  Mahdi  proclaimed  a  religious  war  against  all  foreigners  as  The  Mahdi; 
well  as  against  the  Egyptian  government.     General  Gordon,  q^^J^",* 
who  had   shown   great  ability  in  dealing  with  half-civilized 
peoples  in  China,  and  as  governor-general  of  the  Sudan  from 
1872  to  1880,  was  sent  by  the  British  government  to  deal  with 
the  Mahdi,  and  was  reappointed  governor-general  of  the  Sudan 
by  the  Khedive.     He  reached  Khartum  and  was  there  besieged 
by  the  Mahdist  forces.     An  expedition  was  sent  out  by  the  / 
British  government  to  rescue  him,  but  it  reached  Khartum 
when  it  was  too  late,  as  the  city  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mahdi  two  days  before,  and  Gordon  had  met  his  death  in  de- 
fending it  against  them.     For  ten  years  England  abandoned 
the  Sudan  until  1896,  when  General  Kitchener,  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Egyptian  army,  undertook  to  recover  the  prov- 
ince.    Building  a  railroad  as  he  marched  southward  in  a  slow 
but  sure  campaign,  he  completely  subdued  the  dervishes,  as  the 
followers  of  the  Mahdi  were  called,  winning  a  decisive  victory 
at  Omdurman  (1898).     For  this  he  received  his  title.  Kitchener  Kitchener 
of  Khartum.     The  Sudan  was  held  as  a  joint  Egyptian  and  ***  Kiiartum 
British  province.     Since  r883  England,  through  her  represent- 
atives, particularly  Lord  Cromer,  has  done  much  to  build  up  Lord  Cromer 
Egypt  and  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes,  es- 
pecially the  downtrodden  fellaheen,  as  the  peasants  are  called. 
When  Turkey  joined  the  side  of  the  Teutonic  nations  in  the 
European  War  of  19 14,  Great   Britain  deposed  the   reigning 
Khedive  on  the  ground  that  he  was   too   friendly   with   the 
Ottoman  Empire  and  installed  a  relative  of  the  deposed  ruler 
as  Sultan  under  a  British  protectorate. 

132.  France,  Germany,  and  Italy  in  Africa.  —  France  lost  one  The  Extension 
colonial  empire  in  the  eighteenth  century  as  a  result  of  the  p^^l^^^ 
Seven  Years'  War.    This  did  not  discourage  her  statesmen  from  in  Africa 
attempting  to  conquer  another.    The  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  saw 
the  conquest  of  Algeria,  one  of  the  Barbary  States,  and  at  the  Algeria 
opening  of  the  century  nominally  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 


322     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Tunis 


Since  the  Franco-German  War  these  efforts  have  been  more 
pronounced.  With  a  secure  foothold  in  North  Africa,  she  has 
endeavored  to  extend  her  territories  to  the  east,  west,  and  south. 
Although  Tunis  was  desired  by  Italy,  the  influence  of  France  was 
the  stronger,  and  in  1881  a  treaty  with  the  ruler  of  that  state 


'Sr^s^ 


'^^S^ 


Morocco 


Algiers 
Algiers,  the  capital  of  the  French  province  in  Africa  of  the  same  name, 
rises  from  the  seashore  up  the  sides  of  a  precipitous  hill  in  the  form  of  an 
equilateral  triangle.  The  streets  are  regular,  spacious,  and  elegant,  quite 
Parisian  in  appearance.  The  harbor  is  strongly  fortified  and  can  contain 
forty  warships  and  three  hundred  trading  vessels.  It  is  the  most  impor- 
tant seaport  on  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

brought  it  under  French  rule.  The  palmy  days  of  the  Rjoman 
empire  seem  to  have  come  again  to  these  portions  of  North 
Africa.  Railroads  have  been  promoted,  harbors  built,  agri- 
culture encouraged,  cities  Europeanized,  and  everywhere  evi- 
dences of  prosperity  and  progress  are  apparent.  Since  1904 
France  and  Spain  have  divided  Morocco,  that  portion  lying 
opposite  to  Spain  belonging  to  her  sphere  of  influence.    The 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     323 

island  of  Madagascar  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  in  the  . 
Indian  Ocean,  the  fifth  largest  island  in  the  world,  was  con-  M«d«giy<r 
quered  by  the  French  and  annexed  in  1896.  This  island,  to 
which  they  had  long  laid  claim,  is  larger  in  area  than  France 
herself  and  is  rich  in  minerals  and  in  tropical  products.  In 
western  Africa  France  has  large  areas  under  her  rule.  Most  of 
this  territory  has  been  secured  since  1878  (see  map  opposite 
page  318).  Senegal,  part  of  the  Guinea  Coast,  Dahomey,  the 
Ivory  coast,  the  Upper  Niger  Valley,  and  a  region  north  of  the 
Congo  are  subject  to  her.  Through  her  control  of  the  Saharan 
oases,  which  were  secured  by  a  series  of  conflicts  with  the  na- 
tives, she  has  established  her  sovereignty  in  a  region  eight  times 
the  size  of  France.  If  she  completes  the  projected  trans- 
Saharan  railroad,  she  will  possess  a  key  to  the  commerce  of 
central  Africa.  By  the  occupation  of  Djibouti  near  the  Straits 
of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  France  maintains  an  entrance  to  the  Red 
Sea  and  safeguards  her  route  to  Madagascar  and  Indo- 
China. 

Two  new  members  of  the  European  family  soon  became  luiy  end  Ger- 
actively  interested  in  the  fate  of  African  territory.  Italy  was  ™*°^  ^  ^^'^ 
the  first  upon  the  scene.  We  have  already  noted  how  she  con- 
quered Libya  from  Turkey  in  191 2.  Thirty  years  before  this 
date  she  began  operations  upon  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  and 
seized  important  ports.  This  caused  hostile  relations  with  the 
native  state  of  Abyssinia,  resulting  in  1896  in  the  overwhelming 
defeat  of  a  small  Italian  army.  Italy  has  since  confined  her 
efforts  in  that  part  of  Africa  to  building  up  her  colony  of  Eritrea 
on  the  Red  Sea  and  to  establishing  a  protectorate  over  a  part 
of  eastern  Africa  called  Somaliland.  With  many  misgivings 
and  much  hesitation,  Germany  began  her  career  as  a  ruler  in 
Africa  in  1884.  By  means  of  treaties  with  negro  chiefs,  and 
by  forcible  annexations  with  the  consent  of  other  European 
powers,  Germany  has  acquired  Togoland,  Kamerun,  and 
Southwest  Africa  on  the  west,  and  German  East  Africa  on  the 
east  coast.     These  territories  are  rich  in  mineral  wealth  and 


324     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Beginnings 
of  English 
Influence 


The  Boers 


Cecil  Rhodes 


commercial  possibilities.  No  story  of  the  last  quarter  century 
of  the  history  of  Africa  would  be  complete  without  mention  of 
the  work  of  individual  Germans  as  geographical  explorers  and 
scientists. 

133.  The  Extension  of  English  Influence  in  South  Africa.  — 
England's  empire  in  South  Africa  began  with  the  seizure  of 
Dutch  possessions  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  during  the  Napole- 
onic Wars.  At  the  Peace  of 
Vienna  her  title  to  the  colony 
was  confirmed,  and  English- 
men straightway  began  to  emi- 
grate thither.  The  new  forms 
of  government  introduced  by 
the  English,  the  use  of  Enghsh 
as  the  sole  legal  language,  and 
finally  the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  1833,  all  combined  to  irri- 
tate the  Boers,  the  name  given 
to  the  descendants  of  the  origi- 
nal Dutch  settlers.  In  1836 
they  began  to  emigrate  to  the 
north,  to  Natal,  the  Orange 
River  country,  and  the  Trans- 
vaal or  South  African  Repubhc. 
With  the  appearance  of  Cecil 
Rhodes,  an  Englishman  who 
had  amassed  an  enormous  for- 
tune in  the  gold  and  diamond 
mines  of  South  Africa,  England  began  to  extend  her  power.  He 
was  one  of  Great  Britain's  empire  builders.  He  not  only  took 
steps  to  acquire  new  territory  north  of  the  Zambesi  River  but 
projected  a  transcontinental  railroad  from  Capetown  to  Cairo 
to  unite  the  British  possessions  in  northern  and  southern 
Africa.  He  was  successful  in  adding  Rhodesia,  but  found  his 
path  northwards  blocked  by  German  acquisitions.     His  aim 


Cecil  Rhodes 

Cecil  John  Rhodes  was  Prime  Min- 
ister of  Cape  Colony  1890-94.  He 
died  in  1902  and  left  the  bulk  of  his 
vast  wealth  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cating at  Oxford  University  young 
men  of  abihty  from  every  important 
British  colony  and  from  every  state 
of  the  United  States. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     325 

seems  to  have  been  to  weld  all  these  South  African  territories 
into  a  single  state,  including  the  Transvaal. 

Gold  was  discovered  in  the  mountains  of  the  Transvaal  in  ' 
1886,  and  with  this  began  a  great  influx  of  foreigners,  especially 
of  EngHshmen.  The  Boers  did  not  want  these  "  Uitlanders,"  The  Boer  w«r 
or  foreigners,  and  began  a  systematic  policy  of  discrimination 
against  them.  The  Transvaal  government  required  them  to  pay 
heavy  taxes  and  oppressed  them  in  other  ways.  In  1895,  under 
the  leadership  of  Dr.  Jameson,  the  governor  of  Rhodesia,  a  raid  J«n»eK)ii'« 
was  made  by  the  Uitlanders  with  the  avowed  intention  of  over- 
throwing the  Boer  government.  The  revolt  was  suppressed  and 
the  guilty  men  turned  over  to  England  for  punishment.  The 
fact  that  they  received  trivial  sentences  and  that  Cecil  Rhodes, 
the  arch-conspirator  against  the  Boers,  was  shielded  by  the  Eng- 
lish government,  increased  the  irritation  felt  by  the  Boers. 
Finally  Great  Britain  demanded  nothing  short  of  the  right  of 
citizenship  for  the  Uitlanders.  To  this  the  Transvaal  govern- 
ment would  not  accede,  and  war  began  in  1899.  After  three 
years  of  bitter  warfare,  Great  Britain  annexed  the  Boer  republics. 

The  work  of  reconstruction  began  immediately,  and  the 
British  government  adopted  a  singularly  enlightened  policy  in 
regard  to  the  Boers.  In  1909  a  new  Dominion  of  the  British 
Empire  was  created,  known  as  the  South  African  Union,  con-  south  African 
sisting  of  the  four  colonies  of  Natal,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Trans- 
vaal, and  Orange  Free  State.  The  parliament  consists  of  a 
Senate  of  40  members  and  an  Assembly  of  130  members.  The 
Governor-General  is  appointed  by  the  crown.  The  British 
cabinet  system  is  followed.  Both  Dutch  and  English  are  the 
official  languages,  and  the  high  officers  of  the  government  are 
selected  from  the  leaders  of  both  peoples.  North  of  this 
dominion  stretches  the  territory  of  Rhodesia,  which  will  ulti- 
mately form  a  part  of  the  South  African  Union. 

For  Suggestive  Topics  and  Questions  for  Further  Study,  Collateral 
Reading,  Source  Studies,  Suggestions  for  Map  Work,  Map  References, 
and  Bibliography,  see  close  of  Chapter  XI,  page  353. 


Annexation 

of  the 

Boer  Republicc 


Union 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE  EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA 
(Continued) 

The  Far  East  and  the  European  War  of  1914 

134.  Origin  of  the  Far  Eastern  Question.  —  The  century- 
long  contact  between  Asia  and  Europe,  occasioned  by  the 
presence  of  the  Turk  in  southeastern  Europe,  gave  rise  to  the 
'Near  Eastern  problem,  which  has  taxed  the  patience  and  ener- 
gies of  some  of  Europe's  greatest  statesmen  and  is  still  far 
from  solution.  Turkey  in  Asia,  however,  was  but  a  mere  out- 
post of  a  vast  land  mass,  peopled  with  teeming  millions  of 
Orientals.  It  was  not  a  continent  shrouded  in  mystery  and  in 
darkness  as  was  Africa,  as  one  after  the  other  the  great  trading 
nations  of  Europe  —  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  Enghsh  — 
had  come  in  contact  with  its  peoples  and  had  brought 
back  to  Europe,  with  their  rich  jewels,  spices  and  silks,  some 
knowledge  of  the  strange  countries  themselves  and  their  civi- 
Hzations.  Nevertheless,  with  the  exception  of  the  English 
occupation  of  India,  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, the  influence  of  the  West  upon  the  Far  East  had  been 
Exclusive  almost  negUgible.     The  great  empire  of  China  with  its  three 

Poucy  of  the  hundred  millions  of  inhabitants,  the  great  "Middle  Kingdom" 
as  it  was  called  by  its  people,  occupying  with  its  dependencies 
an  area  larger  than  that  of  Europe,  was  practically  closed  to 
European  enterprise  and  promised  to  remain  so  indefinitely. 
The  same  was  true  of  Japan,  her  next-door  neighbor  on  the  East. 
Korea,  lying  between  the  two,  was  long  known  as  the  Hermit 
Nation. 


DDDIDIDDDD    s 

^    o     <n   ra       p    ^5 


=     Z    -5    2. 


of  RassU 
Eastward 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     327 

The  same  influences,  however,  which  opened  Africa  trans- 
formed these  portions  of  Asia.  As  a  result  Europe  now  has  a 
Far  Eastern  question  to  solve  —  a  situation  closely  related  to 
that  in  the  Near  East  and  in  some  of  its  characteristics  merely 
a  part  of  the  same  great  problem.  Of  all  the  European  nations, 
Russia  is  probably  most  responsible  for  this  awakening  of 
interest  in  the  Far  East,  although  our  own  country  and  Japan 
have  figured  prominently  in  the  movement. 

The  course  of  Russian  history  since  the  13th  century  has  The  Ezpanston 
been  marked  by  steady  and  persistent  additions  of  territory. 
Conquest,  says  a  Chinese  proverb,  is  like  water.  That  which 
proceeds  by  flood  overturns,  passes,  and  disappears;  that  which 
progresses  little  by  little  filters  in;  it  is  slow  and  permanent; 
it  penetrates  and  remains  master.  The  latter  is  the  character 
of  the  conquests  of  the  Russians.  Sometimes  they  seem  to  stop; 
but  it  is  only  to  take  breath;  no  obstacle  prevents  them  from 
advancing.  It  was  the  Russian  occupation  of  Siberia,  which 
was  practically  completed  by  the  founding  of  the  port  of 
Okhotsk  on  the  Pacific  in  1638,  that  eventually  precipitated  the 
rapid  changes  which  mark  the  history  of  the  Far  East  in  our  day. 
This  was  the  work  of  the  Cossacks  who,  acting  largely  on  their 
own  initiative,  gradually  extended  the  control  of  Russia  over  this 
vast  expanse  of  territory.  For  the  next  two  centuries,  however, 
the  Tsars  paid  little  attention  to  this  region,  using  it  merely  as  a 
place  of  exile  for  political  offenders.  But  when  Russia  was 
checked  by  the  other  powers  of  Europe  in  her  designs  upon 
Turkey,  especially  after  the  Crimean  War,  she  began  to  direct 
her  attention  towards  Siberia  and  the  regions  in  Asia  immediately 
to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  advance  of  Russia  into  the  great  continent  of  Asia  fol- 
lowed three  lines  or  avenues:  (i)  that  by  Siberia;  (2)  that  by 
Turkestan ;  and  (3)  by  the  route  across  the  Caucasus  toward 
Turkey  and  Persia.  This  last  -may  be  considered  one  of  the 
routes  to  Constantinople. 

By  this  time  it  was  evident  that  the  valleys  of  the  Dnieper 


328     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Reasons  for 
the  Coloniza- 
tion of  Siberia 


Expansion 
Southward 


The  Conquest 
of  Turkestan 


and  the  Don  and  the  fertile  steppes  of  southern  Russia  were 
no  longer  sufl&cient  to  maintain  the  increasing  peasant  popula- 
tion. As  the  population  of  all  Siberia  in  i860  numbered  but 
three  and  a  half  millions,  it  offered  a  convenient  outlet  for 
this  agricultural  population.  Unfortunately  the  northern  por- 
tion, lying  as  it  does  under  the  Arctic  circle,  is  a  frozen  tundra 
for  a  large  part  of  the  year  and  is  therefore  not  available  for 
cultivation.  The  emigration  or  colonization  movement  which 
now  commenced  and  which  had  the  support  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  government,  soon  placed  large  tracts  in  the  south 
under  cultivation  and  began  to  make  of  Siberia  one  of  the 
great  granaries  of  the  world.  The  movement  was  most  active 
about  1880.  In  the  period  from  1893  to  1900  over  a  miUion 
peasants  were  attracted  into  this  region.  This  was  largely  the 
result  of  the  building  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad,  of  which 
more  will  be  said  later. 

When  the  Russians  began  to  reahze  the  vast  natural  resources 
of  Siberia,  its  furs,  fish,  lumber,  and  mineral  wealth,  including 
platinum,  copper,  and  iron,  the  necessity  became  more  pressing 
for  a  proper  outlet  for  these  products.  As  the  harbors  of 
Siberia  are  ice-locked  for  more  than  half  of  the  year,  it  became 
necessary,  if  Russia  was  to  develop  any  commerce,  that  the 
territorial  limits  of  Siberia  be  extended  southwards.  This 
would  mean  expansion  at  the  expense  of  China.  While  China 
was  occupied  with  a  dispute  between  England  and  France 
(1858-1860),  Russia  annexed  the  Chinese  coast  of  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  as  far  south  as  Manchuria  and  founded  the  city  of 
Vladivostock  ("Lord  of  the  East")  as  a  naval  base. 

Meanwhile  the  nomadic  tribes  on  the  southern  frontier  of 
Siberia,  living  in  what  is  known  as  Turkestan,  were  making 
raids  upon  the  Russian  settlers,  and  it  became  necessary  to 
despatch  military  expeditions  against  them.  Step  by  step 
these  campaigns  brought  this  -territory  under  Russian  control 
until  by  1895  Russia  had  occupied  the  plateau  of  Pamir  and 
had  almost  touched  the  frontier  of  India. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     329 


The  Far  Eastern  problem  was  rapidly  taking  shape.  England 
began  to  fear  that  Russia  had  designs  on  India,  and  it  was  this 
fear  that  probably  prompted  her  to  declare  her  neutrality  in  the 
Russo-Turkish   War  of   1877-78.    England  had  remained  in 


Eofbuid 
In  India, 
and  Origin 
of  Rttssophobla 


The  Relief  of  Lucknow:  an  Incident  of  the  Sepoy  Mutiny 

"Havelock's  glorious  Highlanders  answer  with  conquering  cheers, 
Sick  from  the  hospital  echo  them,  women  and  children  come  out, 
Blessing  the  wholesome  white  faces  of  Havelock's  good  fusileers, 
Saved  by  the  valor  of  Havelock,  saved  by  the  blessing  of  Heaven! 
'Hold  it  for  fifteen  days!'   we  have  held  it  for  eighty-seven." 

—  Tennyson. 

peaceful  possession  of  her  Indian  Empire  for  almost  a  cen- 
tury after  the  decisive  conflict  knowTi   as  the   Seven  Years' 
War,  when  her  control  was  threatened  by  the  great  Mutiny  or  The  Sepoy 
Sepoy   Rebellion  of  18.^7-8.     This  was  due  to  a  variety  of  ^**»«"*'"» 


330     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

causes,  not  the  least  of  which  was  the  steady  progress  of 
annexation  and  the  hatred  of  the  Hindus  towards  their  con- 
querors. The  EngHsh  administrators  also  displayed  at  times 
an  excess  of  zeal  in  remodelling  India  upon  western  lines  and 
in  accordance  with  western  ideals.  The  native  soldiers  or 
sepoys  on  the  pretext  that  native  customs,  and  especially 
their  religious  scruples,  had  been  set  at  naught,  suddenly 
rose  in  rebellion,  murdered  their  English  officers,  seized  some 
of  the  principal  cities,  including  Delhi,  and  sought  to  extermi- 
nate all  Europeans.  Fortunately  for  England  the  mutiny  did 
not  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  Enghsh  authority  was 
finally  restored  after  several  hundreds  of  Europeans  had  been 
brutally  massacred.  English  prestige,  however,  had  suffered  a 
severe  blow.  The  dual  administration  of  the  country  by  the 
crown  and  the  East  India  Company  was  now  terminated. 
India  became  a  crown  colony,  thereby  passing  under  the 
direct  authority  of  England.^  It  was  not  long  after  this 
event  that  Russia  began  to  loom  up  on  the  north  as  a  possible 
contestant  for  the  rich  plains  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges. 
Railroad  Beginning  with  about  1890,  the  goal  of  Russian  ambition 

in  Russia  began  to  lie  farther  East.     Hand  in  hand  with  her  expansion 

movement  had  gone  an  effort  to  consohdate  her  possessions. 
Three  great  lines  of  railroads  were  projected  to  this  end:  the 
Trans-Caspian;  the  Trans-Caucasus;  and  the  Trans-Siberian. 
The  first  of  these,  opened  in  1888,  connects  Usun  Ada  on  the 
Caspian  Sea  with  Samarcand  and  Tashkent,  the  capital  of 
Turkestan.  The  Trans-Caucasus  connects  Baku  on  the 
Caspian  Sea  with  Poti  on  the  Black  Sea.  A  steamer  line 
crosses  the  Caspian  from  Usan  Ada  to  Baku,  thus  linking 
together  the  Trans-Caucasus  with  the  Trans- Caspian.  .These 
systems  have  also  been  linked  with  that  greatest  of  all 
recent  railway  undertakings,  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  which 
was  begun  in  1891  and  formally  opened  in  1902  at  a  cost  of 

^  In  1876  India  was  declared  an  Empire,  and  the  following  year  Queen 
\   Victoria  assumed  the  title  of  Empress  of  India, 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA    331 


$360,000,000.  It  is  over  3000  miles  long  and  connects  Petro- 
grad  with  the  Pacific.  It  was  the  question  of  a  Pacific  ter- 
minal for  this  road  that  precipitated  in  the  Far  East  a  crisis 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  all  Europe  and 
to  result  in  an  entire  shifting  of  power  there.  This  was  in 
part  the  result  of  the  appearance  on  the  scene  of  the  island 
empire  of  Japan. 

135.  The  Awakening  of  Japan.  —  Before  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury Japan  was  under  the  personal  rule  of  the  emperor,  or 
Mikado.  The  existence  of 
a  strong  feudal  system, 
however,  gradually  under- 
mined the  power  of  the  Mi- 
kado, and  his  duties  began 
to  devolve  upon  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  feu- 
dal barons,  who  was  known 
as  the  Shogun.  By  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  the  title 
of  Shogun  had  become  he- 
reditary and  his  power 
overshadowed  that  of  the 
Mikado.  The  situation 
may  be  compared  to  the  re- 
lation which  existed  between 
the  kings  of  the  Franks  and 
the  mayors  of  the  palace 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages. 
For  the  next  two  hundred 
years  the  Mikado  was  the 
religious  and  the  Shogun  the  temporal  head  of  the  nation.  The 
national  poHcy  was  one  of  strict  isolation.  Foreigners  could  not 
enter  the  country,  nor  could  the  Japanese  leave  it.  Except 
for  a  little  trade  with  the  Dutch,  foreign  goods  were  pro- 
hibited.   The  United  States  forced  the  abandonment  of  this 


A  Japanese  Feudal  Castle 

In  Nagoya,  a  city  ninety  miles  north- 
east of  Kyoto,  stands  this  magnificent 
feudal  castle  which  was  built  in  16 10. 
Except  for  the  moat  and  the  fortified 
wall,  it  has  little  in  common  with  the 
feudal  castles  of  Europe,  and  is  of  typi- 
cally Japanese  construction.  The  inte- 
rior is  l^utifully  decorated. 


Shoguiute 


332     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Opening  policy  by  sending  Commodore  Perry  in  1853  with  an  American 

by  comnodore  squadron  to  demand  an  entry  for   our   ships   into  Japanese 
Perry  harbors.     Reahzing   that  swords  and  armor  were   no  match 

for  the  American  cannon,  the  Shogun  signed  a  treaty  with 
Perry,  opening  two  ports  to  American  ships.  Similar  de- 
mands were  made  by  some  of  the  European  powers  and  were 
granted,  but  the  action  of  the  Shogun  was  resented  by  many  of 
the  leaders  in  Japan,  and  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  for  his 
overthrow. 
The  Revolution  jn  1866  the  death  of  the  Shogun,  which  was  followed  the  year 
after  by  the  death  of  the  Mikado,  brought  about  conditions 
favorable  to  revolution.  A  conflict  followed  between  the  Mikado 
and  the  Shogun,  and  in  1868  the  last  Shogun  resigned  his  power 
to  the  young  Mikado,  and  the  era  of  ''enlightened  rule"  began. 
This  act  heralded  one  of  the  most  astonishing  transformations 
in  history.  Within  the  next  third  of  a  century  Japan  changed 
from  a  mediaeval  monarchy  to  one  of  the  most  progressive  of 
twentieth  century  states.  The  nobles  voluntarily  gave  up  their 
feudal  rights;  the  army  and  navy  were  reorganized  after  Ger- 
man models;  a  modern  educational  system  was  introduced; 
and  in  1890  a  constitutional  government  went  into  effect  by  the 
free  grant  of  the  Mikado.  The  legislative  branch  of  the  govern- 
ment is  in  the  hands  of  a  House  of  Peers  and  a  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  Japanese  now  began  to  draw  upon  the  whole  world 
for  the  most  up-to-date  and  scientific  methods  of  doing  things. 
Quick  to  learn,  they  in  many  cases  improved  upon  their  western 
teachers.  The  Industrial  Revolution  was  soon  in  full  swing, 
bringing  with  it  the  same  problems  which  were  troubling  the 
West. 
Japanese  and  With   the  new  era   of   enlightenment   came   an   awakened 

ests  in  Korea'  interest  in  the  mainland,  especially  in  the  peninsula  of  Korea. 
The  Japanese  had  long  laid  claim  to  Korea,  as  they  be- 
lieved that  it  had  been  conquered  by  them  in  prehistoric 
times.  These  claims  were  contested  by  China  whose  em- 
peror had  long  asserted  his  authority  over  the  king  of  Korea. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      333 

This  anomalous  position  of  Korea  as  the  tributary  of  both 
Japan  and  China,  combined  with  misgovernment,  had  resulted 
in  many  a  clash  between  the  rival  states.  Korea  was  like  a 
dagger  pointed  at  the  heart  of  Japan,  if  held  by  any  hostile 
nation,  and  as  the  surplus  population  of  the  island  empire 
demanded  some  outlet,  the  Japanese  began  to  look  upon  Korea 
and  the  adjacent  territory  of  Manchuria  as  legitimate  fields 


The  Great  Wall  or  China 

The  Great  Wall  of  China  was  erected  two  centuries  before  Christ  to 
protect  China  from  the  inroads  of  the  Tartar  tribes  to  the  north.  Today  it 
stands  in  almost  perfect  preservation,  while  the  Wall  of  Hadrian  has  almost 
crumbled  to  pieces  except  in  a  few  spots.  It  winds  along  for  fifteen  hundred 
miles,  and  is  constructed  of  two  strong  retaining  walls  of  brick,  rising  from 
granite  foundations,  the  space  between  being  filled  with  stones  and  earth. 
It  is  about  twenty-five  feet  in  breadth  and  the  height  varies  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  feet. 

for  Japanese  enterprise.  Korea  and  Manchuria  now  became 
a  bone  of  contention  between  two  great  Oriental  empires,  the 
one  Westernized  and  aggressive,  the  other  dormant  and  inert; 
for  in  the  same  period  which  had  witnessed  the  emergence  of 
Japan  as  a  powerful  nation,  the  closed  doors  of  China  also 
were  forced  open,  but  with  far  different  results. 

136.  China  and  Its  Civilization.  —  Occupying  a  region  larger 
than  the  United  States,  with  Alaska  and  Great  Britain  throwTi 


334     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

in,  the  Chinese  Empire  is  a  land  of  navigable  rivers,  rich  agri- 
cultural districts,  and  wonderfully  abundant  mineral  resources, 
which  are  as  yet  almost  untouched.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
one  province  could  supply  the  world  with  coal  for  a  thousand 
years.  Long  before  the  people  of  Europe  knew  of  the  compass, 
gun  powder,  printing,  paper,  porcelain,  tea,  glue,  and  gelatine, 
these  necessities  of  our  civilization  were  in  constant  use  in  the 
"Middle  Kingdom."  Roads  and  canals  equal  to  the  best  work 
of  modern  engineers  have  been  in  existence  there  for  many 
hundreds  of  years.  The  high  state  of  civilization  of  the  Chinese 
is  shown  by  their  development  of  peaceful  occupations  and  by 
their  contempt  for  war.  Confucius,  their  greatest  national  hero, 
was  not  a  soldier,  but  a  teacher  and  a  philosopher.  He  taught 
them  to  worship  their  ancestors  and  to  hold  sacred  the  cus- 
toms and  habits  of  the  generations  that  had  gone  before.  So 
faithfully  have  these  teachings  been  observed  that  they  have 
prevented  new  ideas  from  being  introduced  and  have  given  to 
the  Chinese  character  its  conservative  and  frequently  unpro- 
gressive  mould.  New  ideas,  especially  those  of  the  outside 
world,  were  undesired  by  the  Chinese.  They  regarded  all 
foreigners  as  no  more  than  enlightened  barbarians.  For  this 
reason  China  maintained  almost  no  relations  with  Europe  until 
the  nineteenth  century;  sent  no  ambassadors,  and  received 
none;  and  opened  only  one  port.  Canton,  to  western  traders, 
and  then  under  the  most  discouraging  conditions. 
The  Opium  This  selfish  poHcy  of  national  isolation  began  to  break  down 

in  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  deciding 
factor  was  one  wholly  to  the  discredit  of  European  civilization. 
The  government  of  China,  wishing  to  root  out  the  opium  habit 
from  among  its  people,  forbade  the  importation  of  the  drug, 
which  is  prepared  from  a  species  of  poppy  which  grows  in  India. 
But  for  thirty  years  a  smuggling  trade  was  carried  on  by  Euro- 
peans, and  grafting  Chinese  officials  conveniently  closed  their 
eyes  to  the  traffic.  By  1837  the  profits  of  the  trade  to  the 
producers  of  the  drug  in  British  India  were  enormous.    Then  the 


War 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE   IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA     335 

Chinese  government  decided  to  enforce  the  law  against  the 
importation  of  opium  and  seized  and  destroyed  thousands  of 
chests  of  the  drug  at  Canton.     Some  of  the  government's  acts 
seemed  to  the  British  to  be  a  reflection  upon  their  national 
honor,  and  they  therefore  went  to  war  with  China  (1840)  and 
were  easily  victorious.    By  the  Treaty  of  Nanking  (1842),  China  Treaty 
was  compelled:  (i)  to  pay  a  large  indemnity,  partly  as  compen-  ***  ^*°k*«»« 
sation  for  the  opium  confiscated;   (2)  to  open  five  ports  to  Eng- 
Hsh  trade,  namely,  Amoy,  Foochow,   Shanghai,   Canton,   and 
Ningpo;  and  (3)  to  cede  to  Great  Britain  the  island  of  Hong 
Kong.     Some  years  later  the  English  again  came  into  collision 
with  the  Chinese  at  Canton.     France,  enraged  at  the  murder  of 
a  French  missionary  by  the  Chinese,  joined  with  England  in 
intervention.      A  joint  force  penetrated  even  to  the  capital,  and  Xreaues 
by  the  Treaties  of    Tientsin  and   the   convention   of   Pekin  °'  Tientsin 
(i860)    China  was   forced   to   receive   ambassadors   from  the 
intervening  countries,  to  open  additional  ports  to  both,  and  to 
pay  further  indemnities. 

From  this  time  forward  China  began  to  be  permeated  with  influence 
European  influences.  This  came  about  in  two  ways:  by  the  ^  ^r^L. 
direct  introduction  of  Europeans,  and  by  Chinese  emigration. 
Consuls  took  up  their  residence  at  the  open  ports,  and  powerful 
banking  and  trading  houses  were  founded.  Steamship  service 
was  estabhshed  and  later  railways  constructed.  Meanwhile 
China  was  obHged  to  call  for  European  assistance  to  quell  the 
Taiping  rebellion.  The  results  of  this  rebellion  were  that  the 
management  of  the  custom  house  at  Shanghai  was  intrusted 
to  an  Englishman,  and  the  direction  of  the  arsenal  of  Foochow 
to  a  French  ofiicer  of  marine.  The  Chinese  now  began  to  leave 
their  land  in  great  numbers,  but  it  was  always  their  ambition 
and  desire  that  their  bones  should  be  brought  back  to  their  native 
land  for  burial.  The  old  Portuguese  port  of  Macao  acquired  a 
new  importance  through  its  trafiic  in  the  living  and  the  dead. 

About  1859  France   began   to   penetrate    China   from    the  The  French 
southeast  through  the  region  known  as  Indo-China,  a  sort  of 


336    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

halfway  station  between  India  and  the  Chinese  Empire.  The 
French  first  secured  a  foothold  in  this  peninsula  through 
the  efforts  of  Napoleon  III,  occupying  Cochin  China  and  exer- 
cising a  protectorate  over  Cambodia.  After  the  Franco-German 
War,  by  a  series  of  campaigns,  they  secured  Tonkin  and  placed 
Annam  under  a  French  protectorate.  By  these  possessions 
they  had  control  of  a  natural  gateway  into  the  province  of 
Yunnan  and  had  thrust  a  wedge  between  England's  possessions 
in  India  and  Burma  and  her  foothold  at  Hong  Kong. 

137.  Chino- Japanese  War,  1894-95,  and  its  Effects. —  In 
spite  of  this  contact  with  civilizations  so  clearly  superior  to 
her  own,  in  the  main  China  still  pursued  the  even  tenor  of  her 
way  and  remained  as  Oriental  and  as  unprogressive  as  she 
had  been  fgr  centuries.     This  was  the  situation  in  the  Far  East 

Causes  when  Japan  and   China  finally  came   to  blows  over  Korea. 

During  the  quarter  of  a  century  which  elapsed  between  1870 
and  the  outbreak  of  this  struggle,  the  greatest  figure  in  China 

Li  Hung  Chang  was  Li  Hung  Chang.  He  was  one  of  the  few  leaders  who 
seemed  to  realize  the  advantages  of  European  civilization 
and  the  necessity  on  the  part  of  China  of  adopting  the  same 
modern  methods  of  defence  as  were  used  in  the  West.  He 
had  risen  by  successive  steps  to  the  position  of  governor  of 
the  province  in  which  was  located  the  capital  city  of  Pekin. 
This  office  brought  him  in  direct  contact  with  the  throne, 
and  in  his  hands  were  vested  the  relations  with  the  outside 
world.  He  was  a  wily,  shrewd  diplomat,  and  had  his  hands 
been  entirely  free,  China  might  have  faced  the  crisis  of  the 
war  with  Japan  with  brighter  prospects  of  success,  for  he  had 
succeeded  in  partially  remodelling  the  army  on  western  lines 
and  in  laying  the  foundations  for  a  navy. 

The  conditions  which  precipitated  the  Chino- Japanese  War 
of  1894-5  were  somewhat  analogous  to  those  which  occasioned 
the  break  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  1866.  The  conflict 
of  authority  in  Korea  may  be  compared  to  the  conflicting 
interests  of  Austria  and  Prussia  in  Schleswig-Holstein.     The 


Shimonosekl 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      337 

anarchic  conditions  which  prevailed  in  Korea  seemed  to  call 
for  vigorous  repressive  measures.  Japan  therefore  proposed  to 
China  joint  intervention,  but  China  refused.  It  was  a  ques- 
tion whether  this  proposal  was  made  in  good  faith,  as  Japan 
possessed  at  the  time  a  party  favorable  to  war.  When  the 
break  came  China  realized  her  helplessness  before  a  Westernized 
power.  She  was  driven  from  the  peninsula  and  defeated  in 
Manchuria  as  disastrously  as  the  Austrians  were  in  their  war 
with  Prussia.  Li  Hung  Chang  was  made  the  scapegoat  for 
this  failure  by  his  government,  but  his  ability  was  so  far  recog- 
nized that  at  its  close  he  was  intrusted  with  the  peace  nego- 
tiations. By  the  Peace  of  Shimonoseki  (1895),  China  ceded  Pe*ce  d 
to  Japan  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  including  the  important 
fortress  of  Port  Arthur,  and  the  island  of  Formosa;  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  Korea;  and  agreed  to  pay  nearly 
$175,000,000  war  indemnity  to  her  conqueror. 

At  this  juncture  Russia,  backed  by  England  and  Germany,  Foreign 
brought  pressure  to  bear  upon  Japan,  "in  the  cause  of  peace," 
to  give  up  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  for  they  held  that  its  pos- 
session by  Japan  was  a  perpetual  menace  to  China's  territorial 
integrity.  The  explanation  of  this  act  soon  appeared  in  the 
schemes  of  Russia  to  secure  a  satisfactory  terminal  for  her  great 
transcontinental  line.  She,  too,  had  her  eyes  fixed  longingly 
upon  Port  Arthur  and  hoped  to  dominate  the  neighboring 
province  of  Manchuria.  Japan  was  in  no  condition  to  go  to 
war  with  Europe;  so  she  restored  the  peninsula  and  Port  Arthur 
to  China.  This  act  signalized  a  new  era  in  the  Far  East.  Japan 
realized  that  she  must  face  one  or  more  of  the  great  European 
powers  in  a  life  and  death  struggle  for  supremacy  in  a  region 
which  seems  to  her  ever  increasingly  necessary  to  her  contin- 
uance as  a  nation.  Accordingly  she  began  to  build  a  strong 
navy  which  would  be  her  right  arm  when  that  struggle  should 
come.  The  hoUowness  of  the  pretensions  of  the  three  great 
European  powers  soon  appeared  when  Russia  used  the  build- 
ing of  the  Eastern  Chinese  railroad,  a  section  of  the  Trans- 


Aggressions 

in  China 


338     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Siberian  system,  as  an  excuse  for  filling  Manchuria  with  her 
soldiers  and  in  1898  obtained  a  twenty-five-year  lease  of  Port 
Arthur  from  China. 

Her  partners  in  the  events  of  1895  were  not  far  behind 
her  in  securing  for  themselves  advantages  in  the  Far  East. 
The  murder  of  two  German  missionaries  in  the  province  of 
Shantung  furnished  occasion  for  a  German  protest  to  the 
Chinese  government.  A  fleet  was  despatched,  and  the  slow 
action  of  the  Chinese  government  in  investigating  the  out- 
rage enabled  Germany  to  demand  the  lease  of  the  harbor  of 
Kiao-chao  and  a  practical  monopoly  of  railroad  and  mining 
privileges  in  the  province  of  Shantung.  The  Chinese  govern- 
ment was  forced  to  yield,  and  thus  Germany  obtained  a  ''sphere 
of  influence"  in  that  part  of  China.  Great  Britain,  not  to  be 
outdone  by  her  neighbors,  demanded  and  obtained  the  lease 
of  the  port  of  Wei-hai-Wei  on  the  Yellow  Sea.  France  also 
demanded  and  obtained  a  port  in  China.  It  seemed  in  1898 
that  China  was  to  experience  the  same  treatment  that  the 
European  powers  had  inflicted  on  Africa.  But  an  internal 
revolution  in  China  brought  this  movement  to  a  sudden 
termination. 

A  few  of  the  more  far-sighted  Chinese  had  been  profoundly 
impressed  by  the  impotence  shown  by  China  in  the  face  of 
European  aggression,  and  they  had  succeeded  in  winning  over 
the  young  emperor  in  an  effort  to  do  for  China  what  had  been 
done  for  Japan.  The  attempt  failed,  for  a  new  force  and  a 
new  figure  appeared  upon  the  scene.  Just  as  the  Carbonari  in 
Italy  and  the  Jacobins  in  France  profoundly  influenced  the 
course  of  events  in  their. respective  countries,  so  an  organization 
of  Chinese  known  as  the  Boxers  played  a  similar  role  in  China. 
They  were  actuated  by  the  policv  of  "China  for  the  Chinese" 
and  bitterly  opposed  all  foreign  ideas.  This  was  the  new  force. 
The  new  personality  was  the  Dowager  Empress  Tsu-hsi.  By  a 
coup  d'etat  she  brushed  aside  the  young  Emperor  and  assumed 
control  of  the  situation.     She  undoubtedly  sympathized  with 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      339 

the  patriotic  movement  represented  by  the  Boxers,  and  en- 
couraged their  anti-foreign  propaganda.  The  reactionary,  ori- 
entahzing  party  for  the  time  being  had  the  upper  hand. 
The  Boxers  adopted  as  their  watchword,  "Drive  the  foreign 
devils  into  the  sea,"  and  in  1900  the  storm  burst  with  the 
murder  of  scores  of  European  missionaries  and  hundreds  of 
native  Chinese  Christians.  The  German  ambassador  was 
assassinated  in  the  streets  of  Pekin  and  the  other  foreign 
ministers  were  besieged  in  their  legations. 

These  events  created  a  profound  impression  throughout  the 
entire  West,  and  the  European  powers  concerned  called  for 
immediate  action.  With  Japan  and  the  United  States,  they 
arranged  for  a  relief  expedition,  which  rescued  the  foreigners  in  The  ReUef 
Pekin,  suppressed  the  Boxer  revolt,  and  demanded  an  excessive  ^»p«<****<>" 
indemnity  for  the  destruction  of  the  lives  and  property  of  all  the 
intervening  powers.  The  United  States,  after  paying  all  legal 
claims  for  damages  sustained  by  its  citizens,  returned  the  unused 
portion  of  its  share  of  the  indemnity  to  China,  thereby  cement- 
ing new  ties  of  friendship  with  the  Chinese  people.^  At  the 
close  of  the  war  the  powers  involved  renounced  all  thought 
of  dismembering  China  and  formally  guaranteed  its  terri- 
torial integrity. 

138.   The    Conflict   between   Russia   and    Japan.  —  Events  The  "Open- 
now  moved  swiftly  towards  a  clash  between  Russia  and  Japan.   ^°**'"  p**"^^ 
Russia's    attitude    alone    belied    the    agreement    which   the 
powers  had  made  to  maintain  the  "open-door"  pohcy  and  to 
abandon  the  idea  of  territorial  acquisitions.      Japan  became 
suspicious  of  her  activities  in  Manchuria.      In  1902  having 


concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  Japan  felt  ^T'or^t'***" 
ready  to  demand  from  Russia  a  withdrawal  from  Manchuria.   Briuin 
After  months  of  evasion  on  the  part  of  Russia,  which  Japan 
believed  were  being   used  to  strengthen  the  position  of  the 
latter  power   in    that   province,   the  island  empire   suddenly 

1  This   balance   is   being   used   by    the   Chinese   government  to  send 
students  to  the  United  States  to  be  educated. 


340    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Siege  of 
Port  Arthur 


Mukden 


Treaty 

of  Portsmouth 


broke  off  diplomatic  relations  and  began  hostilities.  Early 
in  February,  1904,  the  Russian  fleet  was  destroyed  in  the  har- 
bor of  Port  Arthur,  and  that  Rus- 
sian fortress  was  besieged.  Port 
Arthur  finally  surrendered,  and  the 
Japanese  army  pressed  on  to  de- 
stroy the  Russian  army  at  Mukden 
early  in  1905.  This  g^ve  the  Japa- 
nese command  over  the  southern 
section  of  the  Trans-Siberian  sys- 
tem. Meanwhile,  in  August,  1904, 
the  Vladivostok  and  Port  Arthur 
fleets  had  been  eliminated.  In 
May,  1905,  the  Japanese  fleet  an- 
nihilated a  Russian  fleet  in  the 
Straits  of  Tsushima,  thus  giving 
Japan  the  mastery  of  the  seas.  On 
the  initiative  of  President  Roose- 
velt, representatives  of  the  two  bel- 
ligerents met  at  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire,  and  negotiated  a  treaty 
of  peace.  Russia  agreed  to  evacu- 
ate Manchuria  and  gave  her  lease 
of  Port  Arthur  and  the  Liao-Tung 
Peninsula  to  Japan.  She  also  ceded 
the  southern  half  of  the  island  of 
Saghalin,  north  of  the  Japanese 
archipelago.  Korea  was  to  be  sub- 
ject to  Japanese  influence.  In  19 10 
Japan  annexed  that  state,  and  it  is 
now  known  as  the  Japanese 
province  of  Chosen. 

Japan  had  now  disposed  of  her 
greatest  rival  and  had  attained  the  position  of  arbiter  of  events 
in  the  Far  East.     This  marked  a  real  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 


The  Old  Japanese  Soldier 

The  contrast  between  this 
equipment  of  a  Japanese  soldier 
of  the  period  before  the  Revolu- 
tion in  Japan  and  the  modern 
uniform  of  Japan,  shown  on  the 
opposite  page,  is  striking.  The 
general  effect  of  the  armor  of 
the  Japanese  is  startling,  and 
it  was  designed  to  terrify  the 
enemy. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA       341 


Far  Eastern  Question.    Japan's  victory  over  a  great  European  Effects 


nation  was  an  inspiration  to  the 
reform  movement  in  China.  After 
the  suppression  of  the  Boxer  revolt 
in  1900,  the  Chinese  government  at 
first  seemed  favorable  to  reform 
measures.  Steps  were  taken 
towards  inaugurating  a  constitu- 
tional government,  but  the  crafty 
empress  dowager,  Tsu-hsi,  sought 
to  keep  the  power  well  within  her 
own  hands.  The  cause  of  reform 
seemed  threatened,  but  the  move- 
ment had  gone  too  far  to  be  sup- 
pressed. Revolts  brokfe  out  in 
various  parts  of  the  empire,  the 
dynasty  of  the  Manchus  was  de- 
posed, and  a  provisional  govern- 
ment was  estabUshed.  A  republic 
was  set  up,  and  a  constitution  pre- 
pared which  was  in  some  respects 
modelled  after  that  of  the  United 
States.  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen,  a  well- 
educated  physician,  was  the  heart 
and  soul  of  the  reform  movement, 
and  to  him  was  intrusted  the  des- 
tinies of  the  new  China.  His  ad- 
ministration was  short-lived,  and 
Yuan  Shi  Kai,  a  former  minister 
of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  was  next 
chosen  president. 

139.  Japan  as  a  Great  Power.  — 
Early  in  the  European  War  of  19 14, 
it  became  evident  that  Japan  was 
to  play  a  still  more  prominent  role  in  Far  Eastern  histor>\    As 


the  Far  East 


(g)  Underuwd  Lr  Undrn.or,d.  X.  Y. 

Oyaxl\ 

Field  Marshal  Oj'ama  re- 
ceived his  military  training 
with  the  German  army  during 
the  Franco-German  War.  He 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
second  Japanese  army  corps  in 
the  war  with  China,  and  took 
Port  Arthur  and  Wei-hai-wei. 
During  the  war  with  Russia, 
he  was  commander-in-chief  in 
Manchuria,  This  picture  shows 
him  standing  in  front  of  his 
head-quarters  at  Mukden. 


Chinese  Revo- 
lution, 191 1 


342     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Japan  in  the 
European  War 
of  1914 


Kiao-chao 


Japanese 
Demands 
on  China 


the  ally  of  Great  Britain,  she  formally  entered  the  war  against 
the  Teutonic  allies  and  began  a  siege  of  Kiao-chao,  the  German 
port  on  the  Yellow  Sea.  The  German  garrison  defended  it 
bravely,  but  were  forced  to  surrender  before  overwhelming 
numbers.     When  Japan  took  possession,   she  announced  that 

she  intended  ultimately  to  re- 
store the  port  to  China.  Japa- 
nese squadrons  also  scoured  the 
Pacific  and  seized  various  Ger- 
man island  colonies. 

The  Japanese,  recognizing 
perhaps  the  opportunity  which 
was  theirs  of  still  further 
strengthening  their  position  in 
the  East,  early  in  191 5  made 
definite  demands  upon  China, 
which,  had  they  been  granted, 
would  have  virtually  debarred 
Europe  from  the  country  and 
have  made  it  a  Japanese  de- 
pendency. China  was  to 
transfer  to  her  certain  railroad 
and  commercial  privileges  in 
South  Manchuria  and  Eastern 
Inner  Mongolia;  the  railroads  were  to  be  exclusively  under 
Japanese  control  for  ninety-nine  years;  and  no  other  countries 
were  to  be  allowed  to  build  or  finance  railroads  there  without 
the  consent  of  Japan.  A  joint  force  of  Japanese  and  Chinese 
were  to  police  important  places  in  China.  China  was  to  obtain 
from  Japan  a  certain  quantity  of  arms,  and  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment was  to  engage  influential  Japanese  as  advisors  for  ad- 
ministrative, financial,  and  military  affairs.  China  was  to 
recognize  Japanese  predominance  in  those  portions  of  China 
conquered  from  the  Germans,  and  finally,  China  was  to  agree 
not  to  make  any  further  lease  of  any  part  of  China  to  the  Euro- 


YuAN  Shi  Kai 

Successively  Prime  Minister,  Presi- 
dent, Emperor  and  President  '  of 
China.  For  over  five  years,  until  his 
death  in  19 16,  the  fate  of  the  Dragon 
monarchy-republic  hinged  upon  this 
militant  and  wily  statesman. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      343 


pean  powers  without  the  consent  of  Japan.  This  in  effect  was 
to  establish  in  China  a  condition  of  affairs  similar  to  that  created 
in  South  and  Central  America  by  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

At  first  China  was  disposed  to  appeal  to  the  western  nations 
to  compel  Japan  to  recede  from  her  aggressive  demands.  But 
Europe  was  at  war,  and  the 
United  States  felt  that  the 
whole  question  was  one  in 
which  she  was  not  directly 
concerned,  provided  her  com- 
mercial and  similar  interests 
were  guaranteed.  The  land- 
ing of  Japanese  troops  at  the 
port  of  Tientsin  ih  China 
forced  China  to  yield  on  many 
of  the  points  demanded. 
Japan's  purpose  is  evidently 
to  dominate  Eastern  Asia, 
either  by  conquest,  or  by  estab- 
lishing a  definite  Japanese  over- 
lordship  over  China,  or  by  a 
confederation  of  Asiatic  states, 
with  Japan  as  the  leader,  or, 
at  least,  by  the  application  of 
the  principle  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  in  relation  to  her  af- 
fairs with  China.  As  one  au- 
thority has  said,  "It  is  a  fact 
surely  worthy  of  special  note 


Chinese 
Concessions 


Sun  Yat  Sen 

Dr.  Sun  has  perhaps  not  been  en- 
tirely eliminated  from  power  in 
Chinese  affairs,  although  he  resigned 
the  provisional  presidency.  In  19 16 
a  formidable  revolution  broke  out 
in  the  southern  provinces  of  China, 
where  the  influence  of  Dr.  Sun  is 
very  great. 


that  wherever  Japan  sets  her  foot  —  no  matter  how  she  may 
have  placed  it  there  and  no  matter  what  promises  she  may  have 
given  regarding  evacuation  —  there  she  remains  for  good."  It 
will  be  well,  on  the  other  hand,  to  hear  the  view  of  Count 
Okuma,  Ex-Premier  of  Japan:  ''Japan  now  has  continental 
possessions,  and  it  is  felt  that   China  is  powerless  herself  to 


The  Far  East 
in  1916 


344    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

maintain  the  integrity  of  her  territory  —  a  weakness  which 
brings  the  influence  of  the  powers  to  operate  in  China.  .  .  . 
Japan  is  now  a  continental  as  well  as  an  insular  country,  and 
requires  a  strong  navy  to  insure  connection  between  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  thje  Empire  as  well  as  a  defensive  army."    Japan  is, 


TOKIO 

The  only  touch  of  old  Japan  in  this  view  of  a  street  in  Tokio,  the  capital, 
is  the  jinrikisha,  or  wheeled  chair.  The  swiftness  of  the  transformation  of 
Japan  from  the  middle  ages  to  modern  times  is  here  well  illustrated. 


perhaps,  prepared  for  a  struggle  for  mastery  not  only  in  Shan- 
tung, which  she  gained  from  the  Germans,  not  only  in  the 
Manchurian  Province,  which  she  gained  from  the  Russians,  but 
also  in  China  itself.  China  has  keenly  realized  her  power- 
lessness  to  thwart  Japanese  designs  and  before  the  death  of 
Yuan  Shi  Kai,  in  1916,  there  was  a  movement  on  foot  to 
transform  the  republic  into  a  constitutional  monarchy. 

140.  The  Great  Colonial  Powers  of  the  Present  Day.  —  This 
expansion  movement  has  not  been  carried  to  its  present  point  of 
development  without  bitter  rivalries  and  jealousies.  Those  who 
have  benefited  primarily  by  it  are  Great  Britain,  Russia,  France, 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      345 

Japan,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  These  are  the  great 
colonial  powers  of  today.  Next  to  them  arej:he  smaller  states  of 
Italy,  The  Netherlands,  Portugal,  Spain,  Denmark,  and  Belgium. 
The  fields  represented  by  the  colonial  interests  of  these  nations 
have  already  been  pointed  out.  The  forms  and  methods  by 
which  they  have  gained  and  now  maintain  their  control  are 
either  economic  or  poUtical.  The  methods  employed  to  obtain  Methods  of 
economic  control  have  been  varied.    The  would-be  colonial  co^*'^'^ 

1  .  Economic 

power  loans  vast  sums  of  money  to  semi-civilized  governments, 
as  was  the  case  of  Egypt,  and  upon  their  failure  to  pay  their 
debts  seizes  control  over  their  national  finances,  which  inevit- 
ably leads  to  the  second  form  of  control  —  poUtical  domination. 
Another  method  is  by  the  building  and  control  of  great  public 
works,  such  as  railroads,  in  the  coveted  region.  Inevitably  this 
calls  for  a  poUcing  of  the  railroads  by  the  soldiers  of  the  colonizing 
power^  as  in  Manchuria,  and  it  is  then  but  a  short  step  to  empire. 
Just  as  varied  have  been  the  methods  of  poUtical  control.  First  PoUticai 
there  is  the  dependency,  where  pro-consuls  or  military  governors 
rule  with  more  or  less  absolute  authority.  This  system  Great 
Britain  employs  in  India,  although  nominaUy  ruUng  the  sup- 
posedly self-governing  native  states  as  a  protector.  This  last- 
named  relationship  suggests  a  second  method  of  control  — 
the  protectorate.  Here  the  control  is  more  shadowy.  The 
protecting  state  watches  over  the  foreign  relations  of  the  vassal 
state  and  affords  it  a  varying  degree  of  freedom  in  its  internal 
affairs.  A  third  method  is  by  the  self-governing  colony.  Great 
Britain  has  been  remarkably  successful  with  this  method,  as  is 
shown  in  AustraUa,  Canada,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa. 
These  countries  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  repubUcs.  They 
have  their  own  parliaments,  elected  by  popular  vote.  At  the 
head  of  the  government  is  a  responsible  ministry  modeUed 
upon  the  British  cabinet.  The  sole  connection  between  the 
colony  and  the  mother  country  is  the  governor-general  sent 
from  England.  He  acts  as  the  representative  of  the  British 
government  in  the  colony  and,  with  his  vice-regal  powers, 


BRITISH 

SOUTH  AFRICA  BRITISH                       F>JI  ISLANDS 

J^  NORTH  BORNEO                       'i^'                              SETTLEMENTS      FALKLAND 

■I  ^^                                                                               tr^                    ISLANDS 

■HL  ^^^                                          JAMAICA                   "^l^               .P^ 

S3|  (^f^  >            NIGERIA 
WEST  IN 


lORTH  BORNE 

^^^T  JAMAICA  ^^^ 

BRITISH  ^^^^^B  ^^ 

GUIANA  ^^^^^  Mg 


BRITISH  NEW  GUINEA 


BAHAMAS 


WEST  INDIES 

"V 


*"*. 


HONG-KONG  AND 
WEI-HAI-WEI 


TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  1914 

Note:-  This  and  the  following  maps  of  territorial  possessions  are  drawn  to  the  same  scale 
lor  purposes  of  comparison. 


LLPOATES  CO.,  N.Y. 


FRENCH  NORTHVVEST  AFRICA 

FRANCE 

FRENCH  QUIANA 


MADAGASCAR 
COMORO  16.  •.». 


FRENCH  SOMALILAND 

TAHITI 


FRENCH  INOO-CHINA 
NEW  CALEDONIA 


^  ^^^V    REUNION  \**. 

TAHITI       ^^^  * 

TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  FRANCE,  1914 


1^ 


GERMAN  S.W.AFRICA 

tKIAO-CHAU        TOGO  LAND 


CAMER00N8  <^  GERMANEA3T  AFRICA 

A  KAISERWILHELM  flj^^^/ 

^^  LAND  i^^K 


TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  GERMANY.  1914 


PORTUGUESE  AK,r>r^,   a 

EAST  AFRICA  ANGOLA  PORTUGAL  MADEIRA 


f  >» 


m  "Z"  ._ AZORES 

IMOR         tP' 


GO  A 

^  ^  AZOR 

CAPE  VERDE 


TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  PORTUGAL,  1914 


DUTCH  EAST  INDIES 

DUTCH  GUIANA  H9LLAND 

TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  HOLLAND,  1914 


UNITED  STATES 

J^^^^^^^^^^^-v  /  /^  PHILIPPINE  IS. 


% 


ALASKA 


SAMOA  PORTO  RICO 


HAWAIIAN  IS. 


TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  1914 


as  Colonial 
Rolen 


as  Colonizers 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      349 

delights  the  imagination  of  the  royalty-loving  Briton,  however 
little  he  really  interferes  with  the  actual  colonial  administration. 
Imperial  federation  is  an  outgrowth  of  this  form  of  control. 
First  in  Canada,  then  in  Australia,  and  finally  in  South  Africa, 
federative  systems  of  government  have  been  introduced,  binding 
the  separate  colonies  in  each  of  these  locaUties  the  more  closely 
together  and  making  for  a  larger  measure  of  self-government. 

The  English  have  been  especially  successful  in  the  promotion  The  Ensiiah 
of  great  industrial  works,  such  as  factories,  railroads,  and  mining 
ventures  in  their  colonial  possessions.    In  the  development  of 
trade  in  the  commercial  wares   of   her   colonies   and   in   the 
exchange  of  articles  manufactured  in  Europe,  the  English  are 
rivalled  by  no  other  people  save  the  Germans.    The  latter  have  The  g 
also  proven   successful  as  agricultural  colonists,  especially  in 
America.     They  are  willing  to  settle  in  a  wilderness  in  the 
hope  of  making  it  blossom  like  the  rose;  and  their  willingness 
to  endure  hardships  and  hard  work  is  an  important  feature  of 
their  colonial  efforts.    Although  the  French  lack  this  quality  The  French 
and  have  not  been  as  successful  as  true  colonizers,  they  have 
proven  themselves  great  colonial  administrators  and  have  added 
considerably  to  the  wealth  of  their  colonies.     The  Dutch  are  Dutch  PoUcy 
very  successful  in  winning  the  loyalty  of  their  subject  colonies 
by  a  policy  of  avoiding   friction   with  native  customs   and 
institutions. 

141.  The  Influence  of  Expansion  upon  the  European  Situa- 
tion and  the  European  War  of  1914.  —  The  principle  of  impe- 
riaUsmhas  for  several  decades  exercised  a  marked  influence  upon 
international  relations,  and  this  influence  will  undoubtedly  con- 
tinue into  the  future.  As  Russia  reached  out  toward  the 
Pacific,  she  came  in  conflict  with  the  expansionist  programme 
of  Japan,  with  a  far-reaching  train  of  consequences  whose  end 
no  one  can  prophesy.  Great  Britain  and  Russia  may  come  some 
day  to  blows  over  the  control  of  central  Asia.  France  and 
Great  Britain  were  perilously  near  war  over  their  interests  in 
Africa,  when  at  Fashoda  the  French   attempted   to  prevent 


Colonial 
System 


The  Fashoda 

Incident 


350    ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Great  Britain  from  reaping  the  reward  of  her  victory  over  the 
Mahdists  in  1898.  In  1906  Germany  attempted  to  drive 
France   out   of  Morocco  and  desisted  only  because   of    the 

The  Aigeciras  firm  Stand  of  England  and  the  other  powers  in  the  Algegiras 
conference.  The  United  States  has  a  keen  interest  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  Open-door  in  China  and  in  wielding  a  para- 
mount influence  in  South  America.  The  causes  of  the  present 
war  in  large  part  are  to  be  found  in  this  rivalry  for  world  domin- 
ion, this  struggle  for  the  Near  East,  for  the  mastery  of  the 
Pacific,  and  for  the  world's  commerce. 

Pansiavism  The  Russian  plan  of  territorial  extension  southward  to  the 

Dardanelles,  by  uniting  under  her  influence  the  people  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  long  menaced  the  world's  peace.  England 
was  one  of  the  chief  antagonists  of  Russia  in  this  diplomatic 
contest;  but  in  recent  years  German  influence  has  been  supreme 
in  Constantinople.  For  centuries  Austria  has  dreamed  of  the 
acquisition  of  the  weaker  Balkan  states,  yet  the  people  of  these 
states  were  overwhelmingly  Slavic  and  hence  more  favorable 
to  Russia.  In  Hungary,  Russia  was  accused  of  fomenting 
conspiracies  against  the  government  in  the  interests  of  Pan- 
slavism.  It  required  but  a  slight  episode  to  precipitate  a  gen- 
eral conflict.  This  was  the  assassination  of  the  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand  on  the  28th  of  June,  19 14,  while  riding 
through    the    streets    of    Sarajevo,    the    capital    of    Bosnia. 

Causes  of         The  assassin  boasted  that  he  was  a  Serb,  although  a  citizen 

War  of  1914  of  Austria-Hungary.  The  latter  government  decided  to  use 
this  incident  as  an  excuse  for  humbhng  Serbia  and  made 
such  drastic  demands  upon  that  government  that  to  have 
acceded  to  them  would  have  meant  the  virtual  loss  of  inde- 
pendence. Russia  thereupon  notified  Austria  that  she  would 
not  allow  Austria  to  make  war  on  Serbia  ''upon  a  mere 
pretext,"  and  Germany  responded  with  a  demand  upon  Russia 
to  keep  out  of  the  quarrel  on  penalty  of  war  with  both  the 
Teutonic  states.  Like  a  row  of  blocks  which  children  set  up  to 
topple  over,  the  principal  powers  of  Europe  entered  the  war. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      351 


352     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Belgium  became  the  highroad  of  a  tremendous  invasion  by  the 
German  armies  into  France,  and  England  entered  the  war  to 
redress  this  alleged  violation  of  Belgium's  neutraHty.  How 
the  war  settled  down  to  a  grim  burrowing  beneath  the  ground 
in  the  entrenched  and  far  flung  battle  Hues  on  the  East  and 


Sarajevo 

A  view  of  the  quaint  little  city  of  Sarajevo,  the  capital  of  Bosnia, 
where  the  Crown  Prince  of  Austria  was  assassinated.  In  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries  this  city  was  the  capital  of  an  independent  kingdom,  but  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks  early  in  the  15th  century  and  remained  under 
Ottoman  rule  until  the  19th  century. 


West;  how  Japan  entered  the  war,  ostensibly  as  the  ally  of 
England,  but  primarily  to  gain  territorial  and  commercial 
supremacy  in  the  Far  East;  how  Italy  finally  threw  in  her 
sword  against  her  old  partners  of  the  Triple  Alliance;  how  a 
new  Quadruple  Alhance  was  formed  by  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Turkey  and   Bulgaria;   how   Roumania   after  long 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      353 

delay  unsheathed  the  sword ;  of  ZeppeUn  and  submarine  warfare ; 
and  the  world-wide  character  of  this  most 'disastrous  conflict 
that  the  world  has  ever  known;  all  these  must  be  the  province 

of  a  future  writing. 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  Name  in  order  the  independent  states  which  have  emerged  from  the 
Ottoman  Empire  in  modern  times.  2.  Explain  the  part  played  by  the  Euro- 
pean powers  in  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  and  discuss  the 
bearing  of  this  matter  on  the  European  War  of  1914.  3.  Discuss  the  causes, 
events,  results,  and  the  terms  of  the  treaty  ending  the  Crimean  War. 
4.  Discuss  the  unbearable  conditions  under  the  rule  of  the  Sultan  in  Bosnia, 
Herzegovina,  and  Bulgaria.  5.  Contrast  the  policies  of  Gladstone  and  Db- 
raeU  concerning  the  Balkan  question.  6.  Discuss  the  causes,  events,  re- 
sults and  the  terms  of  the  treaty  ending  the  Russo-Turkish  War,  1877-8. 
7.  Show  how  the  proceedings  of  the  Congress  of  BerUn  sowed  the  seeds  for 
a  later  general  European  War.  8.  Describe  the  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom of  Bulgaria.  9.  What  is  the  Panslavic  movement?  10.  What  is 
your  estimate  of  the  work  of  the  Young  Turk  party?  11.  What  is  the  pres- 
ent status  of  the  Balkan  situation?  12.  Give  a  more  complete  account  of 
the  Mahdist  rebellion.  13.  Describe  the  administration  of  Lord  Cromer, 
14.  What  is  the  object  of  the  Nationalist  movement  in  Egypt?  15.  Why 
is  the  Suez  Canal  regarded  as  the  "Heel  of  Achilles"  of  the  British  empire? 
16.  How  have  the  military  operations  around  the  Suez  Canal  perhaps  modi- 
fied the  future  interpretation  of  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty  regarding  the 
Panama  Canal?  17.  What  is  the  outlook  for  Morocco?  18.  What  bearing 
has  the  Great  European  War  on  the  future  of  the  Congo  region?  19.  De- 
scribe the  operations  of  the  British  colonial  forces  against  the  German  colonies 
in  Africa,  19 14-16.  20.  Summarize  the  British  conquest  of  South  Africa 
touching  on  the  seizure  of  Natal  and  the  Orange  River  colony;  Gladstone 
and  the  Boers;  Boer  policy  toward  foreigners;  Jameson's  raid;  Kruger; 
attitude  of  William  II  of  Germany  during  the  Boer  War;  the  Boer  War 
and  its  results;  the  present  government  of  South  Africa  and  its  problems. 
21.  Summarize  the  poUcies  of  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Japan  ^^ith 
regard  to  China.  22.  Summarize  Chinese  history  from  the  Chino- Japanese 
War  to  the  death  of  Yuan  Shi  Kai  in  19 16.  23.  Contrast  political, 
social,  and  industrial  conditions  in  Japan  before  and  since  the  revo- 
lution. 24.  In  the  light  of  the  Great  European  War  did  Germany  receive 
a  fair  deal  at  the  Algefiras  conference?  25.  What  colonies  were  held  by 
each  of  the  following  nations  at  the  opening  of  the  European  War  in  1914: 
Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Germany,  Portugal,  The  Netherlands, 
Spain?,  What  changes  in  possession  have  been  effected?  26.  Discuss  the 
conditions  in  India  at  the  present  time.  27.  What  was  the  Quebec  Act? 
28.   Give  the  terms  of  the  Canadian  Federation  Act  of  1867.    29.  Discuss 


354    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

the  territorial  and  industrial  advance  of  Canada  since  the  federation. 
30.  What  are  the  political  parties  in  Canada  today?  For  what  does  each 
stand?  31 .  Discuss  the  relation  between  Canada  and  Great  Britain;  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  32.  How  large  a  part  of  India  is  under  the  direct 
rule  of  England?  What  are  the  relations  maintained  with  the  other 
portions  ?  33.  Describe  the  social  reforms  introduced  in  Australia  and  New 
Zealand.  34.  Compare  the  governments  of  Australia  and  Canada.  35.  Illus- 
trate the  loyalty  of  the  British  colonies  to  their  sovereign  since  1870. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  The  Disruption  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  and  the  Rise  of  the 
Balkan  States. 

Hazen,  Europe  since  1815,  pp.  601-44.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Devel- 
opment of  Modem  Europe,  Vol.  II,  pp.  303-17.  Schurman,  The 
Balkan  Wars,  pp.  3-13 1.  Duggan,  The  Eastern  Question, 
pp.  1-152.  Gooch,  History  of  Our  Time,  pp.  120-30.  Seignobos, 
Contemporary  Civihzation,  pp.  307-34.  Buxton,  Europe  and  the 
Turks,  pp.  i-i  1 8.  McCarthy,  A  Short  History  of  Our  Own  Times, 
pp.  132-62, 405-26, 473-6.  Miller,  The  Ottoman  Empire,  pp.  399- 
504.  Sloane,  The  Balkans,  pp.  3-292.  Gibbons,  The  New 
Map  of  Europe,  pp.  131-219,  263-367.  Jane,  Metternich  to 
Bismarck,  pp.  46-69.  Hawkesworth,  Last  Century  in  Europe, 
pp.  371-87.  Cross,  A  History  of  England  and  Greater  Britain, 
pp.  959-65,  1002-6,  1082-3.  Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  46-50,  Chap.  XXVI.  Rose,  European  Nations,  Part  I, 
pp.  184-343. 
II.  The  Partition  of  Africa. 

Johnston,  The  Opening  Up  of  Africa,  pp.  101-252.  Hazen,  pp.  371-5, 
536-45,550-63.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  353-66.  Gooch, 
pp.  179-204.  Seignobos,  pp.  355-63.  Larson,  Short  History  of 
England,  pp.  596-607,  610-1.  Johnston,  History  of  the  Coloni- 
zation of  Africa  by  AUen  Races,  pp.  125-45,  160-89,  208-76. 
McCarthy,  pp.  441-5, 465-73,  497-S02,  532-9-  Gibbons,  pp.  241- 
262.  Hawkesworth,  pp.  410-29,  446-50,  465-84.  Cross, 
pp.  1013-6,  1029-35,  1063-4.  Harris,  Intervention  and  Coloni- 
zation in  Africa.  Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  614-37.  Rose,  Part  I, 
pp.  143-298. 
III.  The  Expansion  of  Europe  into  Asia. 

Hazen,  pp.  518-23, 681-705.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  331- 
53.  Gooch,  pp.  154-78.  Brinkley-Kikuchi,  A  History  of  the 
Japanese  People,  pp.  679-740.  Asakawa,  The  Russo-Japanese 
Conflict,  pp.  65-372.  Griffis,  Japan  in  History,  pp.  203-44.  Cantlie 
and  Jones,  Sun  Yat  Sen,  pp.  66-136,  214-40.  McCarthy,  pp.  44- 
57,  170-200,  487-97.  Hunter,  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  People 
(found  in  Beard,  English  Historians,  pp.  638-44).  Hawkesworth, 
pp.  485-97.    Smith,  Student's  History  of  England,  pp.  326-60. 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      355 

Cross,  pp.   966-74,    1006-7,    1063-4.      Seignobos,   pp.    363-71. 
'       Hayes,  Vol.  II,  Chap.  XXVII.     Rose,  Part  II,  44-91,  299-319. 

IV.  English  Self-governing  Colonies. 

Bradley,  Canada,  pp.  66-250.  Bryce,  Australia  (found  in  Beard, 
pp.  645-62).  Gooch,  pp.  223-6.  Bryce,  The  Ancient  Roman 
Empire  and  the  British  Empire  in  India,  pp.  1-133.  Cross, 
pp.  1063-9.     Hazen,  pp.  523-36.    Hayes,  Vol.  II.  Chap.  XXIX. 

V.  The  European  War  of  19 14. 

Hart,  The  War  in  Europe.  Simonds,  The  Great  War.  Anonymous, 
I  Accuse.  Beveridge,  What  is  Back  of  the  War.  White,  A  Text- 
book of  the  War.  Gibbons,  pp.  368-412.  Rose,  The  Origins  of 
the  War.  Miinsterberg,  The  War  and  America.  Burgess,  Euro- 
pean War  of  1914.  Hayes,  Modem  Europe,  Vol.  II,  Chap.  XXX, 
Rose,  Part  II,  pp.  376-95. 

Source  Studies 

1.  Letter  of  Lord  Byron  on  the  modern  Greeks.     Robinson  and  Beard, 

Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  Vol.  II,  pp.  386-8. 

2.  Independence  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece.     Ibid.,  pp.  384-8. 

3.  The  Crimean  War.    Ibid.,  pp.  389-94. 

4.  Treaty  of  Berlin.    Ibid.,  pp.  396-8. 

5.  Macedonian  disorders.    Ibid.,  pp.  399-400. 

6.  Bulgarian  independence.    Ibid.,  pp.  395-6,  400-1. 

7.  The  annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.     Ibid.,  pp.  401-3. 

8.  The  opening  of  the  first  Turkish  parliament.     Ibid.,  pp.  403-5. 

9.  The  Turko-Italian  War  of  191 1  and  Tripoli.     Year-books;  Independent; 

Outlook;  Literary  Digest;  Review  of  Reviews. 

10.  The  Balkan  Wars.   Ibid.   Schurman,  The  Balkan  Wars.    (Not  a  source 

but  a  contemporary  account.) 

11.  The  European  War  of  19 14.    Sheip  and  Bacon,  Handbook  of  The  Euro- 

pean War.  (Contains  ample  source  material  for  a  study  of  the 
beginning  of  the  conflict.)  Collected  Diplomatic  Documents  Rela- 
ting to  the  Outbreak  of  the  European  War.  (Official  statements  of 
each  of  the  belligerents  defending  their  entry  into  the  war.)  Published 
in  International  Conciliation,  nos.  83-90,  93-96,  10 1.  Contem- 
porary reviews  and  journals. 

12.  Present  extent  of  European  colonies.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II, 

PP-  413-5- 

13.  The  colonial  question  and  the  Great  War.     Simonds  in  the  Review  of 

Reviews. 

14.  The  work  of  the  missionaries.    Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  415-9- 

15.  Abolition  of  the  opium  traffic.    Ibid.,  pp.  419-22. 

16.  Chinese  Gordon.    Ibid.,  pp.  422-3. 

17.  A  review  of  Japan's  economic  advance.     /6«i.,  pp.  430-1. 

18.  Japanese  constitution.    Ibid.,  pp.  431-3. 

19.  Chino- Japanese  War,    Ibid.,  pp.  433-5- 


356     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

20.  The  Boxer  uprising.     Ihid.,  pp.  435-41- 

21.  The  educational  revolution  in  China.    Ihid.,  pp.  44i-4- 

22.  The  Russo-Japanese  War.    Ibid.,  pp.  444-7- 

23.  The  Chinese  poHtical  revolutions,  —  empire,  republic,  empire.     Con- 

temporary reviews  and  journals.     Year-books.     Chinese  Year-book. 

24.  Stanley  and  Livingston.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  449-52. 

25.  The  partition  of  Africa.    Ihid.,  pp.  448-9. 

26.  The  Congo  atrocities.    Ihid.,  pp.  453-4. 

27.  English  occupation  of  Egypt.  /i>i</.,  pp.  454-8.  Year-books  for  19 14-15. 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 

I.  On  an  outhne  map  of  the  Balkan  region  show  the  Ottoman  Empire  at 
its  widest  extent;  indicate  the  various  losses  of  the  empire  to  1914.  2.  On 
an  outline  map  of  the  Balkan  regions  show  the  problems  of  nationahty  which 
produced  the  European  War  of  1914.  3.  On  an  outhne  map  of  Europe 
indicate  the  ahgnment  of  powers  in  the  European  War  of  19 14.  4.  Show 
the  expansion  of  Russia  in  Asia  at  the  time  of  its  widest  extent.  Indicate 
the  losses.  Show  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad.  5.  Show  the  growth  of 
Japanese  empire  in  eastern  Asia;  indicate  the  principal  places  of  historic 
interest  in  China.  6.  Show  the  partition  of  Africa  to  19 14.  Indicate  the 
colonial  problems  arising  from  the  European  War  of  1914.  Locate  the  places 
mentioned  in  the  chapter.  Show  the  route  of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  railroad; 
of  Stanley's  explorations;  of  the  projected  German  railroad;  the  Suez  Canal. 
7.  Show  the  spheres  of  interest  of  the  great  European  powers  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Persia.  Locate  the  principal  railroad  projects.  Indicate  the  strategic 
points  in  the  European  War  of  19 14.  8.  Show  on  an  outhne  map  the  territo- 
rial divisions  of  Canada;  the  transcontinental  railroads;  the  principal  cities. 
9.  Show  on  a  map  of  Australasia  the  territorial  divisions;  the  gold  region;  the 
principal  cities.  9,  On  a  map  of  the  world  show  the  distribution  of  the  prin- 
cipal European  languages.  10,  On  a  map  of  the  world  show  the  colonial 
possessions  of  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  the 
United  States  in  1 9 14.  11.  On  a  map  of  the  world  show  the  distribution  of 
the  principal  European  races.  Locate  the  routes  made  possible  by  the 
Panama  Canal;  by  the  Suez  Canal. 

Map  References 

Shepherd,  Historical  Atlas.  Holt.  Dismemberment  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  since  1683,  p.  164.  Distribution  of  races  in  the  Balkan  peninsula 
and  Asia  Minor,  p.  165.  Europe  in  1910,  p.  166.  The  growth  of  European 
and  Japanese  dominions  in  Asia,  1801-1910,  p.  170.  Austraha  and  New 
Zealand  since  1788,  p.  172.  The  partition  of  Africa,  p.  174.  The  Suez 
Canal  and  Egypt,  p.  174.  The  Boer  repubhcs  to  1902,  p.  175.  Distribution 
of  the  principal  European  languages,  p.  176.  Distribution  of  Europeans, 
Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Negroes,  p.  177.  Colonies,  dependencies,  and  trade 
routes,  p.  179.     Canada  and  Newfoundland,  p.  212.     Panama  Canal,  p.  216. 

Dow,  Atlas  of  European  History.    Holt.     Ottoman  Empire  from  1729- 


EXPANSION  OF  EUROPE  IN  ASIA  AND  AFRICA      357 

1878,  p.  29.  European  Turkey  from  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  to  the  Balkan 
Wars,  p.  29.  Partition  of  Africa  to  1906,  p.  30.  The  Boer  Republics  on  the 
eve  of  their  suppression,  p.  30. 

Muir,  School  Atlas  of  Modern  History.  Holt.  Growth  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  p.  21.  Algiers  and  Tunis,  p.  21.  PoUtical  distribution  of  Euro- 
peans in  the  West  Indies,  1855,  p.  41.  India  in  1858,  p.  46.  Expansion  of 
Europe  into  Africa,  p.  47.  Cape  Colony  before  and  after  the  Great  Trek, 
p.  47.  West  Africa,  p.  47.  South  Africa,  showing  the  growth  of  British 
power  during  the  nineteenth  century,  p.  47.  Natal  and  Zululand  for  the 
Boer  and  Zulu  Wars,  p.  47.     Australasia,  p.  48. 

Gardiner,  Atlas  of  English  History.  Longmans.  Southeastern  Europe, 
1856,  p.  60.  France,  1860-71,  p.  62.  Southeastern  Europe,  1892,  p.  63. 
The  world  showing  British  possessions,  1907,  p,  65.  India,  1857,  p.  61. 
Africa,  1897,  p.  66.     Siege  of  Sebastopol,  p.  88. 

Robertson-Bartholomew,  Atlas  of  Modern  European  History.  Oxford 
Press.  The  Ottoman  Empire  and  the  Balkans,  1 789-1815,  No.  22.  The 
Ottoman  Empire  and  the  Balkans,  1815-60,  No.  23.  The  Ottoman  Empire 
and  the  Balkans,  1856-78,  No.  24.  The  Balkan  States,  1878-1911,  No.  25. 
The  Balkan  States,  1911-1914,  No.  25.  The  Ottoman  Empire  in  Asia, 
1789-1914,- No.  26.  Southern  Russia,  1721-1914,  No.  29.  Persia  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  No.  t,t,.  Africa,  1914,  No.  34.  The  Far  East  from  1789-1815, 
No.  26.  Southern  Russia,  1 721-1914,  No.  29.  Persia  and  the  Persian  Gulf , 
No.  ^T,.  Africa,  1914,  No.  34.  The  Far  East  from  1815-1914,  No.  35.  Co- 
lonial Powers,  1914,  No.  36. 

Bibliography 

Asakawa.     The  Russo-Japanese  Conflict.    Houghton  Mifflin. 

Beard.     Introduction  to  the  English  Historians.     Macmillan. 

Beveridge.     What  is  Back  of  the  War.     Bobbs-Merrill. 

Bradley.     Canada.     Holt. 

Brinkley-Kikuchi.  A  History  of  the  Japanese  People.  The  Encycloped  a 
Britannica  Co. 

Bryce.  The  A  ncient  Roman  Empire  and  the  British  Empire  in  India.  Ox- 
ford University  Press.  ^ 

Burgess.     The  European  War  of  1914.     McClurg. 

Buxton.    Europe  and  the  Turks.     Methuen  Co.    London. 

Cantlie  and  Jones.     Sun  Yat  Sen.     Revell. 

Collected  Documents  Relating  to  the  Outbreak  of  the  European  War. 
T.  Fisher  Unwin.     London. 

Cross.    A  History  of  England  and  Greater  Britain.     Macmillan. 

Duggan.     The  Eastern  Question.     Macmillan. 

Forbes  and  others.     The  Balkans.    Oxford  University  Press. 

Gibbons.     The  New  Map  of  Europe.     Century. 

Crooch.     History  of  Our  Time.    Holt. 

Griffis.    Japan  in  History.    Houghton  Mifflin. 

Harris.     Intervention  and  Colonization  in  Africa.     Houghton  Mifflin. 

Hart.     The  War  in  Europe.    Appleton. 


358     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Hawkesworth.     The  Last  Century  in  Europe.     Longmans. 

Hayes.  The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe.  Vol.  XL 
Macmillan. 

Hazen.    Europe  since  1815.    Holt. 

/  Accuse.     (Anon.)     Doran. 

Jane    Metternich  to  Bismarck,  181 5-1 878.     Oxford  University  Press. 

Johnston.     The  Colonization  of  Africa.     Cambridge  University  Press. 

Johnston.     The  Opening  Up  of  Africa.     Holt. 

Larson.    Short  History  of  England.     Holt. 

McCarthy.    A  Short  History  of  Our  Own  Times.     Harper. 

Miller.     The  Ottoman  Empire.     Cambridge  University  Press. 

Miinsterberg.     The  War  and  America.     Appleton. 

Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe.     Volume  II.     Ginn. 

Robinson  and  Beard.  Readings  in  Modern  European  History.  Volume  II. 
Ginn. 

Rose.  The  Development  of  the  European  Nations,  1870-1914.  Two  vol- 
umes in  one.     Putnam. 

Rose.     The  Origins  of  the  War.     Putnam. 

Schurman.     The  Balkan  Wars.     Princeton  University  Press. 

Seignobos.     Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 

Sheip  and  Bacon.    Hand-hook  of  the  EuropeanWar.    H.  W.  Wilson  Co. 

Simonds.     The  Great  War.     Macmillan. 

Sloane.     The  Balkans.     Eaton  and  Mains. 

Smith.    Student's  History  of  India.     Oxford  University  Press. 

White.    A  Text-hook  of  the  War.    Winston. 

American  Y ear-Book. 

Chinese  Year-Book. 

Independent. 

Literary  Digest, 

Outlook.  \ 

Review  of  Reviews. 

Statesman's  Year-hook. 

The  New  Repuhlic. 


Longitude  60  East  90  from  120        Greenwich  150 


„•.    ••• 


.:  t .  I : 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 

142.  The  Domestic  Problems  of  Individual  States  in  1870: 
their  Origin  and  Nature.  —  While  the  different  states  of  Europe 
were  taking  an  active  part  in  shaping  the  destinies  of  the 
heretofore  unciviUzed  and  backward  continents,  they  were 
undergoing  important  changes  within  their  own  boundaries. 
These  changes  were  in  part  the  result  of  this  expansion 
movement  and  therefore  cannot  be  separated  from  it.  It 
is  perhaps  possible  to  appreciate  more  fully  the  transforma- 
tion which  these  states  were  undergoing  in  their  social,  po- 
litical, and  intellectual  life  if  it  be  considered  apart  from  the 
external  developments  described  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The 
epoch  which  opens  about  1870  found  them  confronting  certain 
difficulties  which  were  in  a  measure  a  legacy  from  their  past 
For  example,  the  creation  of  two  new  states,  the  German  Em- 
pire and  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  was  not  accompUshed  without 
giving  rise  to  many  a  perplexing  problem  to  be  solved  by 
succeeding  generations.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to 
this  fact  in  a  preceding  chapter  (sec.  267). 

The  problems  to  whYch  these  events  gave  rise  were  not  Conditions 
without  their  influence  upon  neighboring  states,  and,  as  is  ^JJobi^s"' 
the  case  with  the  individual  so  it  was  with  the  state,  it  found 
it  impossible  to  "live  unto  itself."  The  Industrial  Revolution, 
which  was  fast  spreading  to  the  remotest  confines  of  the  globe 
and  which  was  taking  on  new  forms  and  developments  with  the 
progress  of  time,  gave  rise  to  new  issues  which  made  the  tasks  of 
the  statesmen  of  this  epoch  more  and  more  difficult.  Industry, 
accompanied  as  it  was  by  intellectual  and  scientific  progress, 


360     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

seemed  to  have  no  fixed  bounds  or  limits;  commerce  assumed 
stranger  and  stranger  forms  and  shaped  all  social  and  political 
progress  as  never  before  in  human  history.  Older  problems  took 
on  larger  and  larger  proportions  until  they  loomed  like  great 
obstacles  in  the  path  of  progress. 

Among  the  more  important  problems  which  now  pressed 
for  solution  were:  (i)  militarism  and  the  great  burden  of  main- 
taining armaments;  (2)  the  desire  of  each  nation  to  give 
expression  to  its  ideals  and  to  shape  progress  after  its  own 
peculiar  notions;  (3)  the  relations  of  church  and  state;  (4)  the 
profitable  development  of  trade  and  industry,  with  the  ques- 
tion of  the  relative  advantages  of  a  free  trade  versus  a 
protective  policy;  (5)  the  extension  of  education;  and  (6) 
finally,  related  to  all  these,  and  yet  distinct  from  them  all,  the 
spread  of  socialism  and  the  growth  of  socialist  parties. 

All  these  problems  can  be  readily  traced  in  their  origin  to  one 
or  the  other  of  the  general  conditions  already  mentioned.  The 
desire  of  Bismarck  to  keep  Germany  in  a  state  of  preparedness 
in  the  event  that  France  should  seek  to  recover  her  lost  prov- 
inces; the  knowledge  that  he  had  attained  his  end  by  force 
and  that  it  would  be  unwise,  for  the  time  being,  at  least,  to 
abandon  the  methods  which  had  proved  so  successful,  com- 
mitted Germany  to  a  poUcy  which  has  been  widely  imitated. 
There  was  not  only  conscious  imitation  but  a  conviction  in  the 
minds  of  many  of  the  leaders  of  other  states  that  only  by 
similar  methods  could  their  own  states  hope  to  retain  their 
place  in  the  sun,  and  not  only  maintain  their  existence  but 
count  for  something  among  their  neighbors.  Sardinia  had 
demonstrated  the  advantages  of  a  well-organized  army  in  the 
formation  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  it  was  natural  that 
it  too  should  continue  to  maintain  an  effective  fighting  force. 
The  nations  of  Western  Europe,  one  and  all,  with  the  exception 
of  England,  adopted  or  maintained  a  system  of  compulsory 
military  service.  Each  vied  with  the  other  in  the  adoption  of 
new  and  improved  fighting  machines  and  jn  the  expenditure  of 


of  Church 
and  SUte 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCR.\CY  361 

vast  sums  of  money  upon  their  fighting  forces,  be  they  armies 
or  navies.  The  question  began  to  be  raised  in  many  of  these 
states  as  to  whether  such  expenditures  were  not  sapping  their 
vitaUty  and  energy  and  might  not  better  be  abandoned  for  more 
profitable  forms  of  effort. 

The  intensity  of  the  national  spirit  in  some  of  the  coun-  Natioiuiuni 
tries  of  Europe  often  showed  itself  in  a  form  of  chauvinism, 
or  a  contempt  for  neighboring  states,  that  called  for  vigorous 
repression  on  the  part  of  those  in  power.  This  condition 
was  in  part  responsible  for  the  imperialistic  tendencies  dis- 
cussed elsewhere. 

Intellectual  progress  and  the  desire  to  free  education  from 
the  control  of  any  particular  church  organization  helped  to 
bring  the  question  of  church  and  state  to  the  fore  in  many  of 
the  countries  of  Europe.  The  absorption  of  the  papal  territories  Relations 
into  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy  caused  this  question  to  assume 
a  different  aspect  here  from  its  form  elsewhere.  Then  again 
there  was  the  desire  to  consolidate  into  one  administrative 
system  all  religious  activities  except  those  of  actual  worship. 
Everywhere  the  relationship  gave  rise  to  perplexing  questions. 
In  some  cases  the  state  church  was  maintained  by  the  contri- 
butions of  a  people  who  worshipped  in  a  different  church  and 
who  felt  it  to  be  a  rank  injustice  to  have  their  money  diverted 
to  an  institution  for  which  they  felt  no  attachment.  Such  was 
the  case,  for  example,  in  Ireland.  These  questions  of  church 
and  state  were  only  one  of  the  many  results  of  the  equalizing 
and  levelling  movement  which  is  a  marked  characteristic  of 
recent  years. 

How  best  to  secure  and  hold  its  trade  was  a  matter  of  absorb-  Free  Trade 
ing  interest  to  each  state  as  it  began  to  realize  the  increasing 
profits  which  accrued  from  this  source  with  the  perfection  of 
modern  business  methods.  Whether  to  erect  the  barrier  of  a 
tariff  wall  or  to  allow  free  entry  to  the  goods  of  others  v,^s  a 
question  not  easy  to  answer,  as  it  involved  so  many  considera- 
tions of  wages,  nationaUty,  and  standards  of  living. 


or  Protection 


362     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Education,  outside  of  certain  very  limited  areas,  had  thus  far 
not  made  much  progress  and  many  of  the  countries  still  suffered 
from  the  effects  of  the  ignorance  and  low  mentality  of  the 
masses.  How  best  to  meet  the  need  everywhere  recognized, 
without  at  the  same  time  undermining  the  foundations  of 
society  and  of  the  state  by  a  too  rapid  transition  from  their 
former  condition;  what  sort  of  an  education  to  provide;  how 
best  to  deal  with  the  evils  which  ignorance  had  already  deeply 
rooted  —  these  were  matters  of  no  little  moment  to  many  of  the 
states  of  Europe  in  the  period  which  opened  about  1870. 

The  unrest  of  the  epoch  was  to  be  seen  in  the  rapid  advance 
of  the  socialist  movement,  not  alone  among  the  wage  earners 
but  among  the  thinking  classes.  The  origin  of  the  movement 
has  already  been  touched  upon  as  well  as  the  different  theories 
held  by  its  adherents  as  to  how  the  present  order  of  society  should 
be  changed  and  improved.  The  peaceful  solutions  proposed 
by  the  early  socialists  now  began  to  give  place  to  more  violent 
and  radical  programmes.  For  example,  there  were  the  Syndical- 
ists represented  in  this  country  by  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the 
World.  They  had  their  origin  in  France  and  took  their  name 
from  the  syndic,  the  French  equivalent  for  a  trade  union.  They 
counselled  violence  to  attain  their  ends  and  conceived  the 
relations  between  capital  and  labor  to  be  that  of  a  perpetual 
warfare  in  which  neither  side  should  ask  or  give  quarter.  The 
workers  were  to  wage  a  bitter  struggle  with  the  capitalists  until 
they  had  wrested  from  them  the  machines  and  factories  which 
gave  them  their  peculiar  advantage.  Political  parties  bearing 
the  name  of  socialist  were  formed  in  every  state.  This  may  be 
traced  in  part  to  the  influence  of  a  young  German,  Karl  Marx. 
In  1848  he  issued  the  Communist  Manifesto,  calling  upon  all 
workers  to  unite.  Organized  political  socialism  may  be  said  to 
date  from  this  step.  The  socialists  abandoned  their  Utopian 
visions  of  the  early  days  and  began  to  unite  as  political  parties, 
demanding  the  reorganization  of  the  existing  social  and  industrial 
order  on  the  basis  of  democratic  government.     In  other  words 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        363 

they  sought  a  species  of  industrial  democracy.  Many  of  their 
adherents  sought  not  so  much  the  new  social  order  to  be  secured  ^^«»o«««y 
through  the  reorganization  of  industry,  but  rather  a  greater 
measure  of  poHtical  freedom.  The  social  democratic  parties, 
as  they  were  often  called,  were  parties  of  protest  and  usually 
the  only  party  in  a  position  to  voice  the  longings  of  the  people. 

The  pohtical  transformation  which  brought  the  nations  of 
Europe  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  goal  of  true  democracy  can  be 
best  understood  and  its  significance  grasped  by  passing  in 
review  the  great  powers  of  western  Europe.  In  each  one  the 
voice  of  the  people  begins  to  be  heard  and  heeded,  but  this  does 
not  mean  that  in  every  case  they  attain  to  the  same  measure  of 
freedom,  nor  do  they  find  themselves  the  real  masters  of  the 
situation.  Two  nations  stand  out  as  bulwarks  of  the  monarchic 
and  autocratic  idea :  Germany  and  Russia. 

143.  The  Preponderance  of  Germany  in  Europe  and  the 
Maintenance  of  the  Monarchical  Principle.  —  Two  aims  GeraumAims 
seemed  to  dominate  Bismarck,  who  continued  in  power  for  . 
the  first  twenty  years  of  the  period:  namely,  to  maintain 
Germany's  commanding  position  in  Europe  and  to  preserve 
the  imperial  form  of  government.  These  objects  were  also 
sought  by  his  real  successor,  the  present  Emperor  William  II. 

Bismarck  made  it  a  cardinal  point  in  his  poHcies  to  safeguard 
the  work  completed  in  1871  by  powerful  aUiances  which  should 
prevent  France  from  recovering  her  lost  provinces  and  at  the 
same  time  give  Germany  a  commanding  position  in  Europe. 
He  courted  the  Tsar,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  later  the 
King  of  Italy.  The  first  alliance  which  he  concluded  was  known 
as  the  league  of  the  three  Emperors  and  included  the  German 
Emperor,  the  ruler  of  Austria,  and  the  Russian  Tsar.  He 
lost  the  friendship  of  Russia,  however,  because  of  his  part  in 
the  Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878,  Russia's  place  being  taken  later  by 
Italy  (1882).  This  new  aUiance,  which  was  defensive  in  char- 
acter, was  known  as  the  Triple  Alliance  and  guaranteed  to  each 
state  the  arrangements  which  it  had  aheady  made  for  its  own 


364     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Imperial 
Government 


The  Power 
of  Prussia 


internal  affairs  and  for  its  existing  boundaries.  France  was  in 
a  position  of  almost  complete  isolation  until  Russia's  defection 
from  the  league  of  the  three  Emperors.  Such  was  the  rapidity 
of  France's  recovery  from  the  events  of  1 870-1 871  and  so  fear- 
ful was  Bismarck  of  a  reopening  of  the  Alsace-Lorraine  ques- 
tion in  a  war  of  revenge  upon  Germany,  that  it  has  been  asserted 
that  he  was  on  the  point  of  attacking  her  in  1875,  had  he  not 
been  dissuaded  by  the  attitude  of  Russia.  Bismarck  and 
William  I  were  most  successful  in  making  and  holding  friends 
for  Germany.  German  diplomacy  has  not  proved  quite  so 
successful  since  Bismarck's  fall.  The  Empire  has  nevertheless 
attained  to  the  position  of  a  world  power  and  is  the  rival  of 
England  in  her  influence  over  Western  Europe.  This  is  largely 
the  result  of  the  naval  poUcy  begun  by  her  present  ruler  and 
the  maintenance  of  friendly  relations  with  her  neighbors.  The 
European  War  of  19 14,  however,  has  upset  these  relationships 
in  a  disagreeable  manner. 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  government  of  the  German  Empire 
shows  on  the  one  hand  a  retention  of  certain  mediaeval  forms 
and  practices  and,  on  the  other,  the  tremendous  power  and 
influence  of  Prussia  over  the  whole  imperial  edifice.  When 
Bismarck  drew  up  a  constitution  for  the  North-German  Con- 
federation, which  later  became  the  framework  of  the  govern- 
ment of  modern  Germany,  he  was  dominated  by  one  idea,  and 
that  was  to  make  Prussia  supreme.  This  was  a  comparatively 
easy  task,  as  so  much  of  German  territory  was  under  her 
direct  control.  The  Prussian  constitution  has  not  been  changed 
radically  since  its  proclamation  in  1850.  The  friends  of 
democracy  were  disappointed  in  the  results  accompHshed  in  its 
framing,  as  has  already  been  indicated.  Bismarck's  apparently 
high-handed  acts  of  the  epoch  between  1862  and  1866  had  been 
carried  on  seemingly  in  the  face  of  opposition  from  the  Prussian 
lower  house.  This  fact  in  itself  serves  to  indicate  the  weakness 
of  the  constitution  as  a  bulwark  of  the  people's  rights.  Prussian 
territory  included  134,616  square  miles  or  64%  of  all  Germany; 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 


Count  Otto  von  Bismarck 
The  artificer  of  German  unity  had  as  his  guiding  maxim,  "To  be  too  logical 
in  politics  is  frequently  a  fault  which  leads  to  obstinacy.  It  is  necessary  to 
veer  with  the  course  of  things,  with  various  possibilities;  to  regulate  one's 
conduct  by  circumstances  and  not  by  a  personal  opinion  which  is  frequently 
a  prejudice." 


366     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The 
Bundesrat 


its  population  now  numbers  40,000,000  or  61%  of  the  total 
population  of  the  empire.  The  control  of  a  state  so  great  in 
extent  and  so  populous  gives  its  ruler,  who  is  at  the  same  time 
German  Emperor,  a  tremendous  advantage. 

The  chief  governing  bodies  of  the  empire  are  the  Federal 
Council  or  Bundesrat  and  the  Imperial  Diet  or  Reichstag. 
These  two  bodies  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  sort  of  par- 
liament, the  Bundesrat  corresponding  to  the  upper  house  and 
the  Reichstag  to  the  lower.  The  analogy,  however,  is  not  very 
close.  Each  is  possessed  of  separate  functions.  The  Federal 
Council  is  in  the  nature  of  an  advisory  board  to  the  Emperor 
and  consists  of  the  personal  representatives  of  the  rulers  or  of 
the  chief  governing  authority  in  each  of  the  twenty-five  states. 
Its  members  are  selepted  by  those  in  authority,  be  they  kings, 
grand  dukes,  municipal  council  (as  is  the  case  with  Hamburg), 
or  princes.  They  serve  at  the  pleasure  of  those  who  appoint 
them,  doing  their  bidding  in  all  matters.  Since  191 1  the 
imperial  vice-royalty  of  Alsace-Lorraine  also  sends  represen- 
The  Reichstag  tatives.  The  Reichstag  represents  the  people  and  is  chosen  by 
their  vote,  i.e.  by  all  male  Germans  over  twenty-five  years 
of  age.  This  was  Bismarck's  concession  to  the  people  to 
make  the  empire  popular  with  them. 

The  imperial  government,  as  contrasted  with  the  governments 
of  the  separate  states,  has  charge  of  all  matters  pertaining  to 
peace  and  war,  foreign  relations,  commerce  and  navigation, 
banking,  etc.  The  Emperor  has  power  "to  declare  war,  con- 
clude peace,  and  frame  alHances,  but  the  consent  of  the  Fed- 
eral Council  (Bundesrat)  is  needed  for  the  declaration  of  war 
in  the  name  of  the  Empire."  Its  consent,  however,  is  not 
necessary  in  the  case  of  a  defensive  war.  Sessions  of  both 
Bundesrat  and  Reichstag  are  convened  every  year  at  the  call  of 
the  Emperor,  who  may  also  adjourn  and  close  them.  No  laws 
are  laid  before  the  Reichstag  without  first  receiving  the  approval 
of  the  Bundesrat.  The  Imperial  Chancellor,  the  appointee 
of  the  Emperor,  is  his  personal  representative  in  these  meet- 


The  Imperial 
Chancellor 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        367 

ings,  either  presiding  over  or  supervising  their  business. 
Prussia,  with  its  king  in  the  imperial  saddle,  its  seventeen 
out  of  sixty-one  members  in  the  Bundesrat,  and  its  two 
hundred  and  thirty-six  out  of  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
seven  members  in  the  Reichstag,  is  the  dominant  factor  in 
shaping  the  destinies  of  the  imperial  fabric.  The  Prussian  con- 
stitution, by  its  denial  of  equal  voting  to  the  masses  and  its 
bestowal  of  unrestricted  authority  upon  its  ruler,  places  the 
German  Emperor  in  a  position  comparable  to  that  of  no  other 
European  monarch  save  the  Russian  Tsar. 

144.  Bismarck's  Domestic  Policy.  —  This  autocratic  f>ower  Bismarck's 
and  Germany's  position  in  Europe  were  not  maintained  by  ^°**'*™" 
Bismarck  during  his  Chancellorship  without  a  series  of  struggles. 
The  first  foe  which  appeared  was  the  Church.  The  contest 
which  ensued  will  be  described  in  connection  with  the  social 
transformation  of  Europe.  More  formidable,  perhaps,  was  the 
rising  party  known  as  the  Social  Democrats.  It  voiced  the 
aspirations  and  desires  of  the  working  classes,  and  its  numbers 
rapidly  increased  as  Germany  turned'more  and  more  to  industry. 
Bismarck  checked  the  activity  of  the  Social  Democrats  by 
wresting  from  them  some  of  their  most  formidable  weapons, 
putting  into  operation  many  of  their  desired  reforms,  but  under 
imperial  rather  than  popular  control.  He  made  the  state 
itself  responsible  for  the  care  of  the  worker  by  laws  enforcing 
compensation  in  case  of  accidents  and  by  regulations  providing 
against  sickness  and  a  destitute  old  age.  This  pension  legisla-  indostriai 
tion  or  industrial  insurance  was  a  great  step  toward  solvmg 
some  of  the  problems  consequent  upon  the  industrial  revolu- 
tion, and  the  present  emperor  from  the  outset  of  his  reign 
has  shown  his  sympathy  with  and  support  of  such  legisla- 
tion. In  spite  of  these  efforts  to  cut  away  the  ground  from 
beneath  the  Social  Democrats,  their  number  has  steadily 
increased,  especially  in  Prussia,  where  all  efforts  to  secure 
equal  voting  have  thus  far  proved  a  failure.  As  the  prop- 
ertied classes  receive  undue  recognition  in  the  government, 


368     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Bismarck's 
Protective 
Policy 


Policy  of 
WUliamU 


The  Navy 


there  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  the  Social  Democrats  will 
continue  their  struggle. 

Another  difficulty  which  faced  Bismarck  was  largely  economic 
in  character.  It  was  during  Bismarck's  period  of  power  that 
Germany  abandoned  free  trade  for  a  protective  policy.  Ger- 
many seems  to  have  suffered  a  severe  panic  about  the  time 
our  own  land  was  having  its  financial  difficulties  (1873).  This 
panic,  due  in  part  to  overconfidence,  following  the  tremendous 
payments  of  the  French  war  indemnity,  was  partially  responsible 
for  the  change  of  policy.  The  aim  of  the  new  policy  seems  to 
have  been  to  benefit  both  farmer  and  manufacturer.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  duties  on  foodstuffs,  Germany  has  been  referred 
to  as  the  land  of  "dear  bread  and  dear  meat."  There  can  be 
no  question  of  the  tremendous  advance  of  industry  since  1873, 
whether  the  results  of  these  measures  or  due  to  other  causes. 
Food  is  probably  no  dearer  in  Germany  than  in  many  other 
countries  where  the  population  is  dense  and  industry  has  the 
right  of  way.  The  attitude  of  the  government  toward  these 
questions  has  been  decidedly  paternalistic,  subsidizing  and 
aiding  by  every  means  possible  industrial  enterprises  likely  to 
make  for  the  country's  prosperity.  By  concluding  the  Triple 
AUiance,  Bismarck  made  Germany  the  arbiter  of  central  and 
western  Europe.  This  combination,  which  in  its  early  form 
as  the  Dual  Alliance  was  designed  primarily  to  check  France, 
gradually  came  to  be  one  of  the  great  forces  responsible  for 
the  peace  of  contemporary  Europe. 

145.  The  Reign  of  William  II.  —  When  William  II  ascended 
the  throne,  it  was  apparent  that  a  man  of  no  ordinary  ability 
had  come  upon  the  scene.  He  had  been  called  to  the  throne 
at  the  age  of  29  on  account  of  the  imtimely  death  of  his  father, 
who  had  ruled  but  99  days  and  who  was  suffering  from  an 
incurable  disease  when  he  became  emperor  in  1888.  William's 
reign  inaugurated  two  decided  departures  from  the  policies 
followed  by  his  predecessors.  The  first  was  an  effort  to  build 
up  a  strong  navy.     "Our  future  lies  on  the  water,"  was  his 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 


369 


now  famous  utterance.  Hand  in  hand  with  this  resolve 
to  make  Germany  a  naval  power  was  an  interest  in  colonies 
and  in  colonial  enterprise.  Germany's  ventures  in  this  field 
have  been  described  in  another  connection  (see  sec.  321). 
William  II  also  showed  the 
characteristic  HohenzoUern  in- 
terest in  the  army.  His  first 
words  upon  ascending  the 
throne  were  addressed  to  it,  and 
time  and  again  he  has  empha- 
sized his  belief  that  in  a  strong 
army  and  in  military  prepared- 
ness lies  the  secret  of  Ger- 
many's future  position  in 
Europe. 

These  convictions  of  the 
Emperor  have  placed  a  heavy 
financial  burden  upon  the 
people  and  have  brought  upon 
him  the  hostiUty  of  the  Social 
Democrats.  He  has  been  ac- 
cused of  favoring  a  compara- 
tively small  military  party 
made  up  of  those  who  have 
found  in  the  army  a  career 
carrying  with  it  social  distinc- 
tion and  the  special  favor  of 
the  emperor-king.  The  com- 
parative success  of  his  naval 
policy  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1914  Germany  ranked  as 
the  second  great  naval  power  in  the  world.  Starting  well  at 
the  foot  of  the  ladder  in  1898,  in  comparison  with  the  other 
great  powers,  this  progress  is  nothing  short  of  remarkable. 

One  of  the  most  sensational  steps  taken  by  the  young  mon- 
arch soon  after  his  accession  was  the  dismissal  of  Bismarck  as 


William   II,  Tuiru    Emplror   of 
THE  German  Empire 

His  conception  of  his  office  is  strik- 
ingly similar  to  that  held  by  Louis 
XIV,  as  shown  by  his  own  words. 
In  a  visitor's  register  in  Munich,  he 
wrote,  Suprema  lex  regis  voluntas  tsto 
(Let  the  King's  will  be  highest  law). 
The  German  people  regard  him  as 
the  embodiment  of  their  own  virile 
and  efficient  ideals. 


370     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Fall 
of  Bismarck 


Prince  von 
Buelow 


The  Future 
of  Gennany 


Chancellor.  It  was  not  possible  for  two  such  strong  wills  to  work 
in  harmony,  and  in  1890  the  emperor  asked  for  the  resignation 
of  his  grandfather's^triisted  counsellor.  This  was  a  great  blow 
to  the  old  chancellor  and  astounded  Europe.  Ever  since  this 
the  chancellor  has  been  the  mouthpiece  of  the  ruler  and  has 
never  attained  the  position  of  coworker  or  master,  as  was  the 
case  with  Bismarck.  Perhaps  the  most  able  man  called  to  this 
position  was  Prince  von  Buelow,  who  held  office  from  1900  to 
1908.  His  handling  of  the  foreign  relations  of  Germany  and 
his  efforts  to  make  her  a  real  world  power  were  marked  by 
conspicuous  success. 

There  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  present  ruler  has  a 
high  conception  of  his  responsibiUty  to  his  people  and  is  seek- 
ing by  every  means  in  his  power  to  identify  his  own  interests 
with  those  of  the  country  at  large.  His  efforts  to  secure 
markets  for  German  trade  throughout  the  world  are  a  recog- 
nition of  one  of  the  foundations  of  Germany's  power  —  her 
unexampled  industries.  The  great  question  in  Germany  today 
seems  to  be  whether  the  Prussian  imperial  system  will  be 
maintained  in  its  original  form  or  be  seriously  modified  by  giv- 
ing the  people  a  larger  share  in  the  management  of  their  affairs. 
The  European  War  of  19 14  may  have  much  to  do  with  deter- 
mining this. 

146.  The  Maintenance  of  Autocracy  in  Russia.  —  Down 
to  1855  backwardness  and  stagnation  had  been  the  main  char- 
acteristics of  Russia  —  that  other  great  representative  of  the 
monarchic  idea  in  our  day.  The  Napoleonic  wars  had  done 
much  to  arouse  Russia  to  a  sense  of  her  greatness,  but  in  spite 
of  the  pride  felt  in  the  expulsion  of  Napoleon  the  people  made 
little  progress  in  the  period  which  followed.  The  sentimentahty 
of  Alexander  I,  the  one-time  friend  of  Napoleon  and  the  origi- 
nator of  the  Holy  Alliance,  counted  for  little  in  relieving  the 
wretched  condition  of  the  Russian  people,  and  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Crimean  War  the  Russian  Tsars  maintained  in 
their  entirety  that  system  of  government  and  those  traditions 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        371 

and  customs  which  had  been  consecrated  by  centuries  of 
repression  and  were  so  apparent  under  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catherine  II.  Nicholas  I,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Alex-  The  RoMiaa 
ander  I  (1825),  was  an  autocrat  of  the  autocrats,  remaining  GoTemment 
true,  however,  to  the  ambition  of  his  ancestors  to  add  to 
his  patrimony  by  encroachments  upon  his  neighbors.  One  of 
these  enterprises,  the  Crimean  War,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
broke  the  long  spell  of  peace  which  prevailed  over  Europe  after 
the  Napoleonic  Wars.  The  interest  of  these  rulers  in  the  Near 
East  is  discussed  elsewhere.  Their  ambitions  never  seemed  to 
be  directed  toward  ameliorating  the  lot  of  their  subjects.  It 
would  seem  at  times  as  though  they  engaged  in  these  wars 
in  order  to  distract  the  attention  of  their  people  from  con- 
ditions at  home. 

The  Russian  people  had  not  been  inactive  in  the  years  of  TheAntocracj 
revolution  which  marked  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.   *>"'*c*>o'"  * 
The  death  of  the  sentimental  Alexander  in  1825  occasioned  the 
first  effort  to  change  conditions  which  was  perhaps  prompted 
by   his  failure   to   really   transmute  his  promises  into  deeds. 
The  leaders  of  this  effort  were  members  of  the  nobility  who  had  The 
imbibed  through  contact  with  the  French  Revolution  many  of  ^^^^^^ 
its  liberal  ideas.    The  movement  came  to  nothing  and  was 
sternly  suppressed.     The  new  ruler,  Nicholas  I,  was  absolutely 
fearless  and  so  firm  a  behever  in  the  superior  wisdom  of  the  Tsar 
that  nothing  was  to  be  expected  from  him  in  the  way  of  reform. 
He  was  confronted  in  1830  with  a  revolution  in  Poland,  which 
he  rigorously  put  down.    He  even  sent  troops  to  assist  the  ruler 
of  Austria  in  stamping  out  the  uprising  of  1848  in  Hungary. 

It  was  not  until  his  successor,  Alexander  U,  came  to  the  throne,  Accession  of 
that  Russia  began  to  progress  towards  a  more  enlightened  ^«*"<*«'  ^ 
administration  (1855).    In  the  year  1861 — a  memorable  date 
in  the  struggle  to  rid  the  United  States  of  human  slavery  — 
the  Tsar  by  proclamation  freed  the  21,000,000  serfs  who  were 
attached  to  the  lands  of  the  nobility.    This  proclamation  was  Bmandpeuon 
followed  by  others,  by  which  not  only  all  the  serfs  in  Russia  were  *^  **»'  ^'** 


372     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Zemstva 


Education 


The  Creed 
of  NihUism 


Assassination 
of  the  Tsar 


The  Reaction 

towards 

Absolutism 

The  Industrial 
Revolution 
and  its  Effects 


freed  and  set  up  as  proprietors  of  their  farms,  but  arrangements 
were  made  for  the  participation  of  the  people  in  local  affairs 
by  the  creation  of  zemstva  or  local  assembUes.  These  were 
made  up  of  representatives  from  the  peasants  and  the  landed 
aristocracy.  Although  these  measures  were  far  from  perfect 
and  left  the  peasant  burdened  with  certain  obligations  with 
reference  to  the  land  which  retarded  his  progress,  they  were  a 
long  step  towards  placing  the  masses  of  the  people  on  the  same 
footing  as  the  other  peoples  of  Europe.  The  reign  of  this  Tsar 
Liberator,  as  he  was  called  from  thenceforth,  was  also  marked 
by  a  law  throwing  the  universities  open  to  a  larger  proportion 
of  the  population.  These  reform  movements  on  the  part  of  the 
government,  however,  received  a  decided  setback  as  a  result  of 
the  activities  of  the  intellectual  and  student  classes.  The  Tsar 
did  not  move  fast  enough  to  suit  these  ardent  apostles  of  reform; 
he  seemed  to  hesitate  and  possibly  to  regret  what  he  had  done. 
A  doctrine  known  as  Nihilism  began  to  be  preached  by  this  class 
which  met  with  wide  acceptance.  Its  followers  denied  —  as  the 
name  implies  —  those  things  which  seemed  to  be  realities,  such 
as  government,  religion,  and  property,  as  they  knew  them,  and 
proposed  to  sweep  these  away  and  to  build  anew  where  they 
had  once  been.  This  negative  creed  soon  gave  way  to  an  active 
programme  calling  for  the  elimination  by  whatever  means  offered 
of  all  those  in  authority.  Bomb  throwing  and  assassination 
became  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  emperor  himseK  fell  a 
victim  (1881)  at  the  very  moment  when  he  was  meditating  upon 
other  reform  measures  to  remove  the  unrest  which  was  every- 
where apparent.  His  death  sealed  the  fate  of  the  Nihihsts,  as 
a  decided  reaction  set  in  against  them  on  the  part  of  the  people 
themselves,  and  they  soon  disappeared. 

By  this  time  Russia  had  begun  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution,  and  since  then  up  to  the  present  day ,  agitation 
for  reform  has  been  carried  on  through  the  factory  workers.  A 
protective  policy  was  adopted  by  her  ministers  and  encourage- 
ment was  given  to  foreign  capital  to  invest  in  Russian  mines 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        373 

and  factories.  The  Tsar  and  his  ministers  realized  the  impor- 
tance of  developing  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  and 
sought  to  remove  every  obstacle  to  Russia's  industrial  develop- 
ment. Thus  Hnes  of  railroad  began  to  be  built.  The  most 
gigantic  undertaking  of  this  sort  was  the  Trans-Siberian,  already 
referred  to,  which  was  opened  in  1902.  The  name  of  Count  Count  wku 
Witte  will  always  be  associated  with  these  undertakings.  As 
minister  of  communications  and  later  as  minister  of  finance, 
he  sought  to  place  the  county  on  a  sound  financial  basis  by 
introducing  the  gold  standard  and  by  providing  adequate 
sources  of  revenue.  The  government  monopoly  in  alcohol, 
which  was  given  up  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1914, 
was  one  of  his  means  of  providing  revenue.  He  encouraged 
railroad  building  and  favored  a  protective  policy  in  order 
that  Russian  industries  might  be  placed  upon  a  stable 
foundation. 

The  failure  of  the  terrorist  movement,  as  NihiHsm  was  called 
in  its  destructive  aspects,  led  the  reformers  to  attempt  a  propa- 
ganda among  the  workers  along  sociahstic  lines,  and  the  Rus^ 
sian  people  now  began  to  be  inoculated  with  socialistic  doctrines 
and  to  trust  to  socialistic  reform  programs.  The  new  Tsar,  Alexander  m 
Alexander  III  (188 1),  was  a  reactionary,  and  he  associated  with 
him,  as  both  agent  and  mentor,  the  head  of  the  Russian  Greek 
Church,  Pobyedonostseff,  who  reminds  us  of  Mettemich  in  his  influence  of 
distrust  of  the  people.  ParUanients  and  newspapers  were  P"*'^^***- 
branded  as  instruments  of  the  Prince  of  Darkness;  "orthodo.x>% 
nationalism  and  autocracy"  became  the  creed  and  program  of 
the  government.  To  realize  the  aim  of  this  program  the  Jews  Reii«jons 
were  persecuted  and  closely  confined  to  certam  well-detmed 
areas  known  as  the  Pale,  and  a  harmless,  law-abiding  dissent- 
ing sect  was  almost  suppressed.  The  other  points  in  this  policy 
were  illustrated  in  the  efforts  to  Russianize  the  provinces  of  Ri 
Finland,  Poland,  and  the  German-speaking  portions  of  the  Em-  ^"^ 
pire,  restricting  the  use  of  their-native  tongue  and  wiping  out 
their  local  Uberties. 


Persecution 


374     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  ECROPEAN  HISTORY 


Character  of 
Nicholas  II 


Assassination 
of  Plehve 


The  October 
Manifesto 


The  Duma 


147.  Nicholas  II  and  the  Struggle  for  Representative  Gov- 
ernment.—  The  present  Tsar,  who  succeeded  his  father  in 
1894,  has  exhibited  many  of  the  same  tendencies.  He  is  not  as 
pronounced  a  character  as  Alexander  III  and  has  shown  at 
times  a  decided  leaning  towards  policies  which  do  not  harmonize 
altogether  with  the  maintenance  of  autocracy.  On  the  whole, 
however,  his  influence  has  been  in  the  same  direction.  He  was 
brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Pobyedonostseff,  and  the  struggle  to 
Russianize  his  subject  peoples  of  other  nationahties  has  been  a 
dark  page  in  the  annals  of  his  reign.  The  first  efforts  of  the 
government  to  check  the  dissatisfaction  and  disorder  which 
marked  the  opening  months  of  the  war  with  Japan  in  1904-5 
resulted  in  the  assassination  of  Plehve,  the  Tsar's  minister  in- 
trusted with  the  perservation  of  order.  The  successive  defeats 
of  Russia  at  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  were  followed  by  demands 
which  were  voiced  most  loudly  by  the  working  classes  for  a 
national  representative  assembly.  It  had  been  expected  that 
Alexander's  grant  of  the  zemstva  would  have  led  to  this  long 
before  this  time,  but  the  forces  of  autocracy  have  yielded  but 
slowly  to  the  demands  of  the  hour.  A  great  workingman's  dem- 
onstration was  organized  in  St.  Petersburg,  or  Petrograd  as  it  is 
now  called,  and  on  a  memorable  Sunday  in  January,  1905,  thou- 
sands of  their  number  marched  toward  the  palace  to  lay  their 
grievances  before  the  Tsar.  The  troops  were  called  out  and  the 
mob  dispersed  with  considerable  loss  of  life.  The  unrest  con- 
tinued until  finally  the  Tsar  was  obliged  to  issue  the  so-called 
October  Manifesto  (1905),  calling  for  the  meeting  of  a^  duma 
to  be  made  up  of  representatives  from  all  classes  of  the  popula- 
tion. According  to  the  terms  of  the  proclamation  no  law  was  to 
be  enacted  in  the  future  without  its  consent.  It  also  promised 
control  of  officials  by  the  duma  and  the  recognition  throughout 
the  empire  of  freedom  of  speech,  of  religion,  press,  and  assembly 
and  "the  widest  possible  extension  of  the  franchise."  This 
national  assembly  was  to  be  composed  of  two  houses,  the  one 
called  a  council  of  the  empire  and  made  up  partly  of  officials 


Protest 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY       375 

appointed  from  the  bureaucracy  and  partly  of  elected  members, 
and  the  other  of  a  lower  elective  house  known  as  the  duma.  It 
met  May  10,  1906,  but  again  the  hopes  of  the  people  were 
doomed  to  disappointment,  as  the  Tsar,  fearful  of  its  power,  dis- 
solved the  assembly  before  it  could  accomplish  anything.  He 
called  another  assembly  for  the  next  year,  hoping  perhaps  that 
he  could  more  easily  control  it.  Meanwhile,  several  of  the  radi- 
cal members  of  the  duma  had  gone  to  Viborg  in  Finland  and  The  viborc 
there  signed  a  protest  against  the  action  of  the  government. 
Among  other  things  this  protest  urged  the  people  not  to  pay 
taxes,  nor  to  grant  recruits  until  the  duma  was  restored.  The 
Tsar  and  his  ministers  sought  by  manipulating  the  electoral  laws 
in  their  own  interest  to  secure  a  duma  more  to  their  liking,  but 
only  partially  succeeded.  This,  too,  had  a  brief  but  stormy  ca- 
reer and  was  dissolved  by  government  decree.  The  third  duma 
met  in  November,  1907,  and,  although  much  less  representative 
than  either  of  its  predecessors,  exercised  a  certain  amount  of  con- 
trol over  the  Tsar  and  his  ministers.  The  expenditures  of  the 
government  were  severely  criticised  as  was  also  the  system  by 
which  noble  families,  or  relatives  of  the  Tsar,  were  given  im- 
portant posts  in  the  government.  The  fourth  duma  is  now  in 
session  (1917).  These  meetings  of  the  people's  representatives 
have  done  much  to  educate  the  Russians  in  the  practice  of  self- 
government.  Their  actual  legislative  achievements,  however,  Results 
have  been  small,  and  the  whole  period  has  been  marked  by 
wholesale  arrests,  disorder,  and  stubborn  opposition  to  every 
reforming  tendency. 

With  the  exception  of  the  powers  granted  to  the  duma,  The  Russun 
Russia  still  remains  in  her  organization  the  same  autocratic  ^o^'"™"* 
empire  which  Peter  the  Great  bequeathed  to  his  successors. 
The  Tsar  is  usually  assisted  in  the  administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment by  members  of  the  imperial  family,  who  often  occupy 
responsible  positions  at  the  head  of  the  army  or  navy,  or  as 
governors  of  important  provinces.  Like  his  imperial  cousin, 
William  II,  he   selects  a  premier  or  right-hand  man  who  is  The  Premier 


Accomplished 


376     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

intrusted  with  the  general  oversight  of  the  country,  suggesting 
and  .carrying  out  poHcies  in  harmony  with  the  wishes  of  his 
The  august  master.     The  bureaucracy   is  a  tremendous  force   in 

Bureaucracy  Russia.  A  one-man  system,  such  as  prevails  there,  has  made 
necessary  a  whole  host  of  employees  who  may  be  compared 
to  those  which  operate  a  great  department  store.  They  are 
not  expected  to  act  upon  their  own  initiative,  but  get  their 
orders  from  those  higher  up  until  the  Tsar  himself  is  reached. 
It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  introduce  any  reforms  in  a 
system  of  this  character,  as  has  been  demonstrated  time 
Police  and  Spy  and  time  again.  The  poHce  and  spy  system  are  the  in- 
struments by  which  the  Tsar  and  his  minions  keep  them- 
selves informed  of  any  political  activity,  and  a  lonely  exile 
in  far-off  Siberia  or  death  is  the  penalty  for  any  agitation 
which  threatens  to  undermine  the  power  vested  in  the  au- 
thorities. Military  service  is  universal.  With  the  increased 
strength  and  better  organization  of  the  army,  revolution  has 
become  a  more  remote  possibility. 
Russia  and  the  It  will  be  noted  that  every  great  war  in  which  Russia  has 
of  1914  participated  has  been  followed  by  unrest  and  change.    This 

was  true  in  1856,  in  1878,  and  again  in  1905.  The  European 
War  of  1 9 14  may  have  momentous  consequences  for  the 
Russian  Empire  and  its  people.  The  spread  of  education  will 
undoubtedly  accomplish  much  in  the  future  as  it  has  in  the 
past.  Much  is  also  to  be  expected  from  the  great  material 
progress  attendant  upon  the  Industrial  Revolution.  The 
ignorant,  superstitious  peasant,  who  forms  the  backbone  of 
the  country,  is  difficult  material  out  of  which  to  shape  an 
alert,  progressive  nation. 

148.  The  Third  Republic  in  France.  —  With  the  exception 
of  the  two  countries  just  reviewed,  Germany  and  Russia,  much 
progress  toward  the  democratic  ideal  is  to  be  noted  in  the  other 
great  states  of  Europe.  It  was  long  after  1870  before  the  govern- 
ment of  France  was  placed  upon  a  secure  foundation,  such 
was  the  force  of  her  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Prussia  and  the 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        377 

collapse  of  the  hollow  system  known  as  the  Second  Empire.  A  Baubiiihment 
repubUc  had  been  immediately  proclaimed  following  the  news  ^  ^*  Repuwic 
of  the  disaster  of  Sedan.  It  had  to  pass  through  an  ordeal  of  fire, 
however,  before  it  became  the  accepted  form  of  government. 
The  crisis  was  not  entirely  passed  until  1875,  and,  even  after 
this  date,  many  difficulties  had  to  be  surmounted  to  give  the 
republic  that  standing  and  permanence  which  alone  could  safe- 
guard its  future.  In  the  spring  of  187 1,  Paris  became  the 
scene  of  one  of  the  bloodiest  civil  wars  that  history  records.  The  The 
causes  are  somewhat  difficult  of  analysis,  but  the  working  classes,  ^°^^^ 
suspecting  the  National  Assembly  of  treason  and  wrought  up  to 
a  high  state  of  nervous  tension  by  the  siege  through  which 
they  had  just  passed,  took  up  arms  against  the  government 
following  the  news  of  its  removal  to  Versailles.  The  storm 
had  been  brewing  for  some  time.  It  was  in  the  nature  of  an 
anti-climax  to  the  war.  The  people  could  not  understand 
why  France  had  failed  in  this  crisis.  When,  therefore,  the 
National  Assembly  began  to  enact  laws  which  bore  heavily 
upon  the  poorer  classes,  stopped  all  payments  to  the  national 
guard  which  had  been  formed  from  their  number,  and  de- 
manded the  payment  of  debts  which  had  been  suspended 
during  hostihties,  they  were  easily  aroused  to  action  by  some 
of  the  bolder  spirits.  Suspecting  the  new  assembly  of  mon- 
archistic  tendencies,  they  announced  as  their  platform  the 
transformation  of  France  into  a  federation  of  independent 
municipalities  or  communes.  This  avowed  aim  gave  them 
their  name  of  Communists  (or  Communards).  The  red  flag  was 
adopted  and  an  organization  effected.  From  the  very  beginning 
the  provinces  refused  to  follow  the  example  set  by  Paris,  and 
it  was  not  long  before  the  German  army  of  occupation  in 
Northern  France  witnessed  the  strange  sight  of  regular  troops  De«tnictiT« 
besieging  the  city  of  Paris,  which  was  held  against  them  by  " 

their  fellow-countrymen.  An  entrance  was  forced  and  then 
followed  bloody  street  fighting  and  a  terrible  destruction  of 
property,  as  the  Communists  set  fire  to  some  of  the  great  his- 


378     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

toric  buildings  of  the  city.  No  quarter  was  asked  or  given, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  before  the  struggle  ended  17,000  lives 
had  been  sacrificed  and  7,500  others  had  been  condemned  to 
exile  in  New  Caledonia.     The  contest  lasted  two  months. 


The  Communists'  Assault  on  the  Hotel  de  Ville 

The  Communists  set  fire  to  the  Tuileries  Palace  and  made  an  assault  on 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  city  hall.  Many  women  were  among  the  mob.  An 
analogy  may  be  drawn  between  this  movement  and  the  Irish  uprising  in 
Dublin  in  19 16. 


Nature  of 
the  Republic 


This  danger  passed,  the  assembly  took  up  its  work  of  con- 
stitution-making. In  spite  of  the  strength  of  the  friends  of 
monarchy  in  the  assembly,  a  constitution  was  finally  drawn  up 
guaranteeing  a  republican  form  of  government,  but  a  republic 
of  a  far  different  character  from  the  one  with  which  we  are  famil- 
iar in  this  country.  The  word  "republic"  scarcely  appeared  in 
any  of  these  fundamental  or  basal  regulations,  but  the  govern- 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 


379 


ment  of  the  land  was  intrusted  to  a  president,  a  senate,  and  a 
chamber  of  deputies.  The  senate  is  composed  of  300  members  The  Senate 
chosen  for  a  term  of  nine  years  and  selected  by  an  indirect  "**d^***"***' 
method  of  voting.  The  president  is  elected  for  seven  years 
by  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  joint  session.  He  is 
a  sort  of  figurehead,  but  is  charged  with  the  conduct  of  all 
foreign  affairs  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  two  law-making 


The  Tuileries  Palace 

One  of  the  beautiful  public  buildings  bumed  by  the  Communists.  _  It 
stood  close  to  the  Louvre  and  was  the  scene  of  many  brilliant  court  functions 
during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III. 

bodies,  the  Senate  and   Chamber  of  Deputies,  participates  in   The  Preside&t 
legislation.     He  names  the  ministry,  which,  however,  is  respon- 
sible to  the  two  chambers,  and  its  membership  therefore  is 
practically  determined  by  them.     A  failure  to  follow  their  lead- 
ership in  the  acts  which  are  passed  means  that  they  must 
immediately  resign,  however  acceptable  they  may  be  to  the 
head  of  the  state.     The  right  to  vote  was  conferred  upon  all  The  SoAac* 
male  inhabitants  over  21.    They  select  the  deputies,  who  are 
elected  for  four  years. 
These  fundamental  laws  were  so  framed,  however,  as  to  make 


38o     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


Boulangism 


The  Decline  of  it  easy  for  a  monarchy  to  be  established  ^^  at  least  that  was 
Monarchism  ^-^^  intention  of  those  who  made  them.  These  hopes  were 
doomed  to  disappointment,  although  on  several  occasions  France 
was  dangerously  near  the  verge  of  a  restoration  of  the  kingly 
power.  The  retention  of  the  bureaucratic  system  and  the 
placing  of  all  power  in  the  hands  of  a  central  authority  seemed 
to  make  it  easy  to  effect  a  change  to  a  monarchy.  The  choice 
of  Marshal  MacMahon  as  President  in  1873  was  regarded  as  a 
step  in  this  direction.  The  safety  of  the  republic,  however,  was 
assured  by  the  divisions  among  its  opponents,  as  the  monarchists 
could  not  agree  among  themselves  as  to  what  dynasty  to  restore. 
The  last  danger  from  this  source  was  in  the  movement  called 
Boulangism  (1886-89).  General  Boulanger,  an  elegant  gentle- 
man well  versed  in  the  art  of  pleasing  and  a  clever  politician, 
became  the  centre  of  plots  to  restore  the  monarchy,  and  his 
popularity  was  utilized  to  bring  together  all  the  elements  op- 
posed to  the  government  in  one  great  effort  to  overthrow  the 
republic.  The  effort  failed.  The  general  became  frightened 
at  his  own  temerity  and  fled  the  country,  leaving  his  supporters 
disconcerted  and  helpless. 

Later  the  government  was  somewhat  discredited  in  the  eyes 
of  Europe,  first  by  the  Panama  Scandal  and  again  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Dreyfus  case.  In  order  to  obtain  additional 
funds  for  their  enterprise  and  at  the  same  time  retain  the  con- 
fidence of  the  French  public,  the  Panama  Canal  Company 
resorted  to  bribery  on  a  large  scale,  subsidizing  prominent 
newspapers  and  distributing  large  sums  among  the  members 
of  the  House  of  Deputies.  In  1892  the  company  was  declared 
bankrupt  and  the  work  on  the  Isthmus  came  to  a  standstill. 
The  Dreyfus  case  was  much  more  Serious.  France  had  not 
failed  to  profit  by  the  lesson  of  1870-71,  and  universal  military 
service  was  made  obligatory  upon  all  her  citizens  by  a  law  enacted 
the  very  next  year.  The  Prussian  system  was  introduced  with 
slight  modifications.  The  arbitrary,  unjust  treatment  of  Cap- 
tain Dreyfus,  who  was  accused  of  betraying  military  secrets  to 


The  Panama 
Scandal 


The  Dreyfus 
Case 


Scmltlm 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY  381 

the  Germans,  not  only  revealed  to  patriotic  Frenchmen  the  weak- 
nesses which  had  crept  into  the  standing  army  and  marred  its 
effectiveness,  but  opened  up  again  the  old  question  of  whether 
the  republic  was  to  endure.  Captain  Dreyfus  was  a  Jew.  He 
was  twice  tried  and  convicted.  The  first  time  he  was  sentenced 
to  exile  in  French  Guiana.  After  his  second  trial  he  was  par- 
doned and  later  was  vindicated  of  all  the  charges  against  him. 
His  persecution  was  in  part  the  result  of  an  anti-Semitic  agi-  Aati 
tation  in  which  all  the  forces  opposed  to  the  republic  again 
combined.  Again  the  combination  was  in  vain ;  changes  were 
effected  by  which  the  army  was  placed  under  the  more  direct 
control  of  the  state  and  the  republic  still  further  strengthened. 

All  these  years  an  alliance  had  been  maintained  between  the  Chuzsii 
Catholic  Church  and  the  party  opposed  to  the  repubUc.    The  "*^-8i»t« 
feeling  against  the  church  was  becoming  more  acute  with  the 
lapse  of  time.    The  story  of  the  final  break  which  separated 
church  and  state  will  be  told  later. 

149.  The    Spread   of   Constitutional   Government   and   the 
Extension   of   the  Suffrage.  —  This  period  witnessed  notable 
progress  toward  the  establishment  elsewhere  of  well-ordered, 
democratic  forms  of  government.    The  situation  in  Spain  in  Establishment 
1870  had  been  the  occasion  for  the  break  between  France  and  ^  Consutn- 

»  tlonsj  CrOTem- 

Prussia.  Spain,  then  without  a  ruler,  had  for  some  time  been  ment  in  SpAin 
torn  by  civil  strife  and  was  a  prey  to  the  ambitions  of  rival 
factions.  For  a  Httle  more  than  a  year  a  republic  existed,  but  its 
foundations  were  too  insecure  to  make  it  a  permanent  arrange- 
ment. The  people  were  not  ready  for  such  an  experiment. 
Finally,  in  1874,  a  representative  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons  was 
acclaimed  King  by  the  army,  **the  most  powerful  body  in  the 
country,"  and  a  liberal  constitution  was  adopted  upon  the  lines 
laid  down  in  England.  As  is  the  case  in  Italy,  however,  the 
people  have  little  genius  for  party  government  and  are  still 
divided  into  groups  where  members  are  more  interested  in 
fighting  for  personal  advantage  than  in  furthering  the  interests 
of  their  country. 


In  Spain 


382     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Su£frage 
in  Austria- 
Hungary 


The  Suffrage 
Question 
in  Italy 


The  Downfall 
of  the 
Monarchy 
in  Portugal 


Causes 


In  Austria-Hungary  modifications  in  the  government  have 
been  effected  in  recent  years,  especially  in  Austria,  by  means 
of  which  the  voting  privileges  have  been  extended  and  the  repre- 
sentation widened.  The  Slavs,  however,  are  still  denied  any 
considerable  participation  in  the  affairs  of  the  Dual  Empire. 
In  Austria  the  right  to  vote  is  enjoyed  by  practically  every  male 
citizen  twenty -four  years  of  age  or  over  who  has  resided  at  least 
one  year  in  the  district  where  he  votes.  In  Hungary  the 
Magyar  element  still  retains  control,  although  representing  less 
than  half  the  population.  "In  an  aggregate  population  of 
some  20,000,000,  today  there  are  not  more  than  1,100,000 
voters."  The  demands  of  the  disfranchised  element  have  been 
so  strong  of  recent  years  that  it  is  very  probable  that  the  near 
future  will  witness  a  decided  change. 

In  Italy  the  suffrage  has  been  greatly  widened.  The  law  of 
191 2  provides  for  universal  manhood  suffrage,  except  for  men 
under  30  who  have  neither  performed  their  military  service 
nor  learned  to  read  and  write.  Previous  to  the  passage  of  this 
law  many  were  without  the  ballot  be/:ause  of  their  inability 
to  satisfy  the  educational  test  required  in  their  case.  The 
depths  of  ignorance  into  which  the  population  was  plunged  is 
clearly  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  in  1904  only  29%  of  the 
male  population  over  21  were  enrolled  as  voters.^ 

One  of  the  minor  states  of  Europe  has  joined  the  ranks  of 
the  republics  in  this  era  —  the  little  state  of  Portugal.  Portugal 
had  long  been  cursed  by  faction  struggles  between  the  "ins" 
and  the  "outs"  to  control  the  governmental  machinery,  which 
was  modelled  after  that  of  England,  and  the  rulers  showed 
themselves  helpless  to  prevent  the  graft  and  corruption  which 
such  a  contest  fostered.  They  were  probably  themselves 
partners  to  this  plundering  process.  As  time  passed  the  burden 
of  taxation  became  heavier  than  the  people  could  bear.    When 


1  The  democratic  wave  has  even  been  felt  in  the  Near  East  in  the 
Young  Turk  movement,  described  elsewhere;  in  the  demand  for  a  con- 
stitution in  Persia;   and  in  the  creation  of  the  Chinese  Republic. 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        383 

King  Carlos  placed  Franco  over  the  country  as  virtual  dictator 
(1907),  the  people  felt  that  the  constitution  had  been  trampled 
under  foot.      They  immediately  showed  resentment  at   this 
interference  with  their  hberties,  and  manifested  their  dissatis- 
faction in  acts  of  disorder.     On   Feb.  i,  1908,  the  king  and   Murder  of 
his  oldest  son  were  murdered  as  they  were  returning  to  the  ^*^''  ^^^^ 
palace.    The  late  king's  younger  son  was  proclaimed  king  as 
Manuel  II.    He  was  unable,  however,  to  master  the  situation, 
and  a  civil  war  broke  out  in  1910  in  which  the  navy  co- 
operated with  the  repubUcan  element  and  forced  the  king  to 
flee.     A  republic  was  then  proclaimed,  a  provisional  president   EstabUshmeot 
selected,  and  this  form  of  government  to  all  appearances  is  ***  "**  Repobuc 
likely  to  be  maintained. 

In  the  far  north  the  people's  yearnings  to  express  their  nation-  The  Trtamph 
ality  were  apparent  in  the  separation  of  Norway  from  Sweden,  ***  N«t*<»«ii«y 
after  almost  a  hundred  years  of  joint  rule  (1814-1905).    The 
people  of  Norway  chose  a  relative  of  the  Danish  king  as  their 
ruler  and,  in  remembrance  of  the  days  when  the  Norsemen  ruled 
the  seas,  gave  him  the  title  of  King  Haakon.    The  Norwegians  woman 
are  unique  in  having  recognized  the  principle  of  woman  suffrage  ^"^''*«' 
more  generally  than  any  other  state.    They  have  even  made 
it  possible  (19 13)  for  them  to  vote  for  members  of  the  national 
legislative  body  and  to  sit  as  members  of  this  body. 

The  past  half  century  has  witnessed  a  similar  progress  along  The  Extenium 
democratic  lines  in  England.     In  1867  Benjamin  Disraeli,  who  jj  E^und**** 
was  then  a  member  of  the  cabinet,  recognizing  the  popularity 
of  a  further  extension  of  the  franchise  and  possibly  hoping  Benjimin 
thereby  to  win  votes  for  his  party,  carried  through  parliament  ^^p^^,^ 
a  measure  by  which  the  workingmen  in  the  cities  finally  received  Bfli  o«  isfT 
recognition.     Besides   providing   for   further   changes   in    the 
system  of  representation,  it  conferred  the  privilege  of  voting 
upon  every  person  in  a  borough  who  owned  or  rented  his  house. 
Lodgers  paying  £10  a  year  rent  were  also  included.    In  the 
counties  all  who  owned  or  rented  for  life  land  that  would  \ield 
£5  in  rent  to  the  owner  and  short-time  tenants  paying  a  yearly 


3S4     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


Gladstone 
and  the 
Third  Reform 
BUI 


The  Problem 
of  Militant 
SuSragism 


The  Land 
Problem 


rental  of  £12  were  given  the  suffrage.  This  excluded  the 
country  laborer.  He  must  await  the  action  of  Gladstone  in 
1884,  who,  as  prime  minister,  carried  the  Third  Reform  Bill, 
placing  the  right  to  vote  practically  upon  the  basis  of  manhood 

suffrage.  At  this  time 
England  was  divided  as 
nearly  as  might  be  into 
equal  parliamentary  dis- 
tricts. 

The  women  have  been 
active  in  recent  years  in  a 
campaign  to  include  their 
sex  among  the  voters.  In 
1905  they  began  to  resort 
to  tactics  which  fixed  u^on 
them  the  name  of  militant 
suffragettes,  destroying 
property  and  creating  dis- 
turbances in  order  to  at- 
tract public  attention  to 
their  demands.  The  out- 
break of  the  European  War 
in  1 9 14  terminated  their 
activities  for  the  time 
being. 

150.  The  Irish  Question 
and  the  Reform  of  Parlia- 
ment. —  One  of  the  most 
perplexing  problems  which 
has  confronted  England  in  this  period  has  been  her  relations 
with  Ireland.  The  solution  has  taxed  the  energy  and  resources 
of  some  of  her  greatest  statesmen.  For  some  time  previous  to 
1870  Ireland  had  been  suffering  from  the  curse  of  absentee  land- 
lords, who  took  as  little  interest  in  their  Irish  tenants  and 
treated  them  with  as  small  consideration  as  was  the  case  with 


William  Ewart  Gladstone 

The  grand  old  man  of  English  politics  in 
the  19th  century  entered  politics  as  a  con- 
servative, but  became  liberal  prime  min- 
ister in  1869  and  instituted  a  policy  of 
internal  reform.  For  the  fourth  time 
premier,  unsuccessful  in  securing  the 
assent  of  the  House  of  Lords  to  his  Home 
Rule  Bill,  he  resigned  his  ofl&ce  in  1894, 
four  years  before  his  death.  For  sixty 
years  he  was  prominently  before  the  eyes 
of  the  English  people. 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        385 

the  nobles  of  France  and  their  peasants  in  the  days  before  the 

French  Revolution.    Another  evil  of  long  standing  which  bore 

heavily  upon  the  people  was  the  financial  support  demanded  for 

the  Anglican  Church,  an  institution  in  which  they  did  not  wor-  The  AngUcM 

ship  and  in  which  they  had  not  the  slightest  interest.    Ever  ^^^"^ 

since  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  a  feeling  of  dissatisfaction 

was  to  be  detected  with  the  terms  of  the  union  with  England,  The  UaJoa 

and  in  many  quarters  it  was  felt  that  the  Irish  were  entitled  to  a  '"'"'  BaHmd 

greater  measure  of  home  rule. 

Gladstone's  name  will  always  be  associated  with  the  Irish 
problem  as  the  result  of  the  long  period  of  service  which  he  gave 
to  the  island.      Almost  from  the  outset  of  his  pohtical  career 
his  sympathies  went  out  to  the  Irish,  and  in  1868  he  set  himself 
to  ridding  Ireland  of  the  incubus  of  the  Anglican  Church,  GUdstone 
carrying  a  resolution  through  the  Commons  in  favor  of  dises-  ^**  ^\u^ 
tablishment.    This  resolution  caused  the  overthrow  of  Disraeli,   ment  of  the 
who  was  then  prime  minister,  and  the  next  year  Gladstone  as  ^f*"^ 
prime  minister  carried  an  act  providing   that   the  Anglican 
Church  should  no  longer  be  recognized  as  the  state  church  in 
Ireland,  but  should  be  treated  as  any  other  church  establish- 
ment,   retaining,  however,  all   its  church  buildings.     Ample 
provision  was  also  made  for  its  clergy. 

Even  before  Gladstone's  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  the  Irish,  a 
great  deal  of  political  unrest  had  manifested  itself  in  the  island. 
This  has  continued  throughout  this  entire  period,  from  1870  to 
the   present.     Several  organizations  were  formed  among  the 
Irish  to  remedy  the  existing  evils.     In  some  cases,  as  with 
the  Fenians,    who   were  organized  in  the  late  sixties,  they  The  Feotaas 
went  so  far  as  to   countenance  and   encourage  conspiracies, 
having  as  their  aim  the  overthrow  of  English  rule  by  force. 
The   most  successful  of   these  efforts   to    secure    justice  for 
Ireland    was  the  Irish  Land    League,   which  was    organized  The  Irish 
to   remedy  the  abuses   associated  with   land-holding.     Their  ^^**  ^-^^v^ 
demands  were  embodied  in  the  three  F's  —  fair  rent,  fixity  of 
tenure,  and  free  sale  of  the  tenant's  rights.     Gladstone's  first 


386     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


The  Irish 
Land  Act 


The  Question 
of  Home  Rule 

Pamell  and 
the  Irish 
Nationalist 
Party 


Opposition 
of  Ulster 


effort  to  meet  these  demands  by  legislation  only  partially 
removed  the  injustices  of  which  they  complained,  but  by  the 
passage  of  his  act  of  1881  a  better  system  was  introduced, 
guaranteeing  to  the  tenant  a  security  in  his  holding,  which  was 
unknown  before,  and  compensating  him  for  improvements  of  a 
permanent  character  in  case  of  removal.  An  opportunity  was 
afforded  the  peasant  farmer  of  becoming  the  owner  of  his  land, 
as  the  government  stood  ready  to  advance  the  purchase  price 
(under  certain  conditions),  allowing  the  peasant  a  certain  length 
of  time  to  repay  the  loan. 

The  agitation  over  the  land  question  gave  way  to  a  more 
persistent  and  a  more  bitter  struggle,  tending  to  separate  Ireland 
from  England  and  to  place  the  fortunes  of  the  island  in  the  hands 
of  the  native  Irish.  The  Irish  Catholics,  in  particular,  felt  that 
England  had  never  understood  the  Irish  situation  and  that  what- 
ever legislation  was  enacted  in  the  EngHsh  parliament  showed  a 
decided  leaning  toward  the  Protestant  element  in  the  north. 
They  therefore  organized  a  Home  Rule  Party  to  secure  a  radical 
rearrangement  of  the  relations  between  the  two  islands.  An  Irish 
Nationalist  party  appeared,  obstructing  legislation  in  the  English 
Parliament  and  seeking  to  attract  attention  to  Irish  conditions, 
allying  itself  with  whichever  party  seemed  inclined  to  admit  the 
justice  of  its  contentions.  Charles  Stuart  Parnell  was  its  greatest 
leader.  Although  he  was  of  English  descent  and  a  Protestant, 
he  threw  himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  struggle  to  secure  jus- 
tice for  the  country  of  his  birth.  One  of  the  great  difficulties 
that  arose  in  any  readjustment  of  the  relations  between  the  two 
countries  was  the  enmity  and  racial  differences  between  Ulster 
in  the  north  and  the  Catholic  and  native  element.  The  Ulster- 
men  did  not  wish  to  be  at  the  mercy  of  these  advocates  of  home 
rule;  they  were  in  the  main  content  to  abide  by  existing  arrange- 
ments. Gladstone  was  finally  convinced  of  the  merits  of  home 
rule  and  spent  the  closing  years  of  his  political  activity  in  a  vain 
effort  to  realize  it.  It  is  a  question  which  time  has  not  settled 
and  it  still  remains  one  of  the  great  issues. 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 


387 


3  ± 


O  Q 


3 
n  ►-s  Ji  3 

oB  < 


9- 


-  2  rt 
g  ^       ^ 

h1^  pTp' 

8  I  g  Es-  a 

•I  ^  O-p     ^ 

O 
> 


^  o 
•2  c: 


i 


p  _  m 

p  ff  rt- 
2.g  ^  t^ 

en  P  -  fo 
N»  cfl  ^,  en 
pa   rf  '^   ^ 

g  <,  cr  o 
p-  ::>-.  et 


388     ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Home 
Rule  BUI 


Prospects  of 
Civil  War 


Lloyd  George 
and  the 
Reform  of 
Parliament 


The  Budget 
of  1909 


A  most  bitter  struggle  was  on  between  the  Ulstermen  and  the 
rest  of  Ireland  when  the  war  broke  out  in  19 14.  The  ministry 
and  parhament,  convinced  at  last  of  the  necessity  of  a  change, 
had  enacted  a  home  rule  bill  providing  for  a  separate  parhament 
for  Ireland  to  legislate  upon  local  matters,  but  allowing  a  certain 
number  of  Irish  representatives  to  sit  in  the  imperial  parliament, 
as  it  was  to  be  known,  to  act  upon  matters  of  defence  and  the 
like  which  applied  to  the  whole  empire.  The  Ulster  counties 
were  allowed  to  vote  as  to  whether  they  would  enter  into  the 
arrangement  or  remain  as  they  were  for  six  years.  It  was  inti- 
mated by  the  supporters  of  the  act  that  at  the  end  of  this  time 
some  provision  would  be  made  for  a  federal  union  acceptable 
to  them.  So  aroused  were  the  opponents  of  the  measure  that 
volunteers  were  enrolled  in  Belfast  and  other  cities  of  the  north, 
and  a  civil  war  seemed  imminent.  Until  the  spring  of  1916, 
the  European  War  seemed  to  have  obliterated  these  differences  for 
the  time  being,  and  the  home  rule  problem  seemed  to  be  in  abey- 
ance. Then  came  the  misguided  movement  under  Sir  Roger 
Casement  and  the  Sinn  Fein  Society.  Relying  upon  German 
assistance,  a  revolt  was  started  in  Dublin  which  was  sternly 
suppressed.  Several  of  the  leaders  were  executed,  among  them 
Sir  Roger  Casement. 

The  English  constitution  has  recently  experienced  a  decided 
modification  in  the  curtailment  of  the  power  of  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  question  of  the  right  of  this  body  to  block  measures 
passed  by  the  lower  house  had  been  raised  many  times  in 
history,  but  without  result.  The  attempt  of  Lloyd  George  as 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  to  carry  a  somewhat  unusual  budget 
through  both  houses  in  1909  forced  the  question  to  an  issue. 
The  government  had  been  running  behind  financially,  and  new 
means  of  taxation  had  to  be  devised  to  cover  the  increasing 
expenditures  and  deficit.  Lloyd  George  conceived  the  idea 
of  placing  a  heavier  burden  upon  the  wealthy  classes,  especially 
those  in  possession  of  great  estates  or  valuable  city  properties. 
The  lords  were  directly  affected  by  these  levies  and  time  and 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 


389 


of  Lord* 


again  interposed  their  veto.    This  right  to  kill  a  measure  by  a  Veto  Power 
veto  was  contested,  and  a  bill  was  finally  passed  (191 1)  providing 
(i)  that  the  Lords  could  not  veto  a  money  bill  and  (2)  that  any 
measure  which  had  passed  the  Commons  in  three  successive 
sessions  and  had  been  vetoed 
by  the  upper  house  should  be- 
come a  law  witWut  their  ap- 
proval,  providing   two   years 
had  elapsed  since  its  introduc- 
tion.    This  was  a  definite  tri- 
umph for  the  principle  of 
democracy,  as  the   House   of 
Lords   was   one   of   the    few 
twentieth  century  survivals  of 
the  power  of  the  old  aristo- 
cratic families  of  England. 

In  England  we  find  de- 
veloped most  thoroughly  the 
system  of  representative  gov- 
ernment. With  this  principle 
was  also  developed  that  of 
popular  Uberty.  These  two 
ideals  are  fundamental  to  our 
own  government,  and  there- 
fore it  is  of  especial  value  for 
us  to  summarize  first  the  rights 
enjoyed  by  Englishmen  and, 
because  won  by  EngHshmen, 
enjoyed   by   Americans;   and 

second,  the  essentials  of  the  government  of  England  today. 
When  one  examines  the  amendments  to  the  United  States  Con- 
stitution, there  appear  the  rights  won  by  Englishmen  during  a 
struggle  lasting  many  centuries  while  continental  Europe  groaned 
under  the  tyranny  of  feudal  lords  or  ** Divine  right"  rulers. 
These  basic  rights  may  be  summarized  briefly  as  follows:    (i) 


David  Lloyd  George 

Premier  David  Lloyd  George  is  the 
foremost  man  in  British  poUtics.  In 
Asquith's  cabinet,  as  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  he  was  the  real  force 
behind  the  reform  measures  of  the 
ministry  and  is  an  outspoken  cham- 
pion of  democratic  ideas.  In  the  war 
cabinet,  he  filled  with  distinction  the 
highly  important  position  of  Minister 
of  Munitions,  and  his  ser^'ices  in  or- 
ganizing the  industrial  forces  of  the 
country  on  a  scale  of  high  eflSciency 
made  him  the  man  of  the  hour. 


Summary  of 
the  English 
GoTemment 
of  Today 


390     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


The  Lords 


freedom  of  religion;    (2)  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press; 

(3)  freedom  of  assembly  and  of  petition  for  a  redress  of  griev- 
ances; (4)  security  of  person  and  property;  (5)  just  trials  by 
jury  and  reasonable  penalties. 

Parliamentary  government  in  England  won  a  complete 
triumph  by  the  Act  of  191 1.  In  form  a  monarchy,  the  govern- 
ment in  some  respects  responds  more  directly  and  quickly  to 
the  popular  will  than  in  the  United  States.  The  reformed 
House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  (i)  peers  of  England  by  descent 
or  by  new  creation;  (2)  lords  spiritual,  i.e.  the  two  archbishops 
and  certain  bishops  of  the  Anglican  Church;  (3)  sixteen  Scot- 
tish peers  elected  for  the  term  of  parliament  to  represent  the 
whole  body  of  Scottish  noblemen,  and  twenty-eight  Irish  peers 
elected  for  life  to  represent  the  whole  body  of  Irish  nobles;  and 

(4)  four  leading  representatives  of  the  most  eminent  authorities 
on  law,  chosen  for  life.  A  drastic  reconstitution  of  the  House 
of  Lords  was  considered  by  the  ministry  in  191 1,  and  further 
changes  may  be  expected  after  the  unusual  conditions  produced 
by  the  European  War  of  19 14  have  been  eliminated. 

The  Commons  The  British  House  of  Commons  is  composed  of  670  members: 
465  for  England,  30  for  Wales,  72  for  Scotland,  and  103  for 
Ireland.  They  are  chosen  in  a  general  election  and  hold  office 
for  5  years,  unless  parliament  is  previously  dissolved.  Whenever 
a  vacancy  occurs,  a  special  or  by-election  is  held  to  fill  the  office. 
After  a  general  election  has  shown  which  party  the  people  wish 
to  hold  office,  the  leader  of  that  party  in  parhament  becomes 
premier,  or  prime  minister.  He  chooses  from  parliament 
those  members  of  his  party  who  will  work  in  sympathy 
with  him  to  fill  the  important  cabinet  ofiices.  After  a  merely 
formal  acceptance  of  this  list  of  names  by  the  ruler,  the  new 
cabinet  begins  its  work,  which  is  to  formulate  the  policy  of  the 
state  concerning  all  important  matters  and  to  present  for 
parliament's  consideration  bills  embodying  this  policy.  If  the 
cabinet,  or  "  government,"  as  it  is  popularly  called,  fails  to  secure 
the  passage  of  an  important  measure  or  is  subjected  to  a  vote 


The 

"  Government 

or  Cabinet 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY 


391 


3  "^ 

B' 

Cfl 

0 

n 

9^ 

< 

H 

0 

n. 

0 

u' 

n 

0 

a 

2* 

f? 

fD 

2, 

a 
tfl 

P 

u 

r 

5 

en 

0 

c 

^. 

3- 

^►0 
3  5- 

3 
cr 

a 

1- 

1- 

< 

P 

f 

1- 

It 

^. 

g- 

s 

? 

n 

o' 

^. 

0 

>-» 

tr 

p 

B'c 

1 

n* 

< 
0 

w 

tr 

E- 

n 

5 

c^ 

0 

1 

S, 

C3 

p^ 

J3 

3 

ft) 

^ 

0 

i 

3 

S 
P 

en 

0 

:3 

gi 

p 

5 

0 

^ 

5' 

en 

en' 

a; 

1 
g 

3* 

qq 

&-  0 

3'. 

en* 

p 

n> 

2 

0 

>-t 

w 

n 

p 
0 

•g 

> 

0 

g 

i 

tr 

g 

p 

a> 

0- 

tr 

en 

0 
a- 

P 

rt 

s 

^ 

0 

1 

B 

0 

3 

n' 

OC 

VS 

p 

a  0 

5'  p 

2^ 

3   "LCrq 

91 

'^ 

8 

^ 

0 

a 

(T) 

0^ 

P 

^i« 

!;! 

<^3 

.13 
c 

^ 

r 

392    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


o 


^     O   4J    >2    > 

H  ^^^'^ 

"^"S  oj  2  ^ 
•^  c^^  § 

a-S  'C ";"  H 
t«  o  "5  "5  «>; 

fcH       ^     *J     '*-'    CO 

tH  ag  «^^ 
"-  all 

arc -52 

,^  ^  ^  a 
^  «5    .6  Co 

C/3^    W   2   S  ^ 

o  ^  y  X3  *^  p 

tt    C      C      (H      ^H 

3   (U    fa  tTJ  "*^ 
^   O   Ji   fa   c 

^  fe  s  ^1 

•5  bB^  a.a-9 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        393 

of  censure,  it  may  either  resign,  thus  giving  way  to  a  new 
cabinet  representing  the  opposition  party,  or  ask  the  king 
to  dissolve  parhament,  thereby  appeahng  to  the  voters  to  elect 
a  new  House  of  Commons  in  which  the  ministry's  party  shall 
have  a  larger  majority. 

151.  The  Separation  of  Church  and  State  in  Europe.  — 
Europe  has  not  only  been  undergoing  a  political  transformation 
since  1870,  but  has  likewise  been  experiencing  radical  social  and 
intellectual  changes.  References  have  already  been  made  to 
the  changed  relations  between  church  and  state  in  Ireland.  A 
similar  step  was  taken  in  Wales  (1914),  where  the  bulk  of  the 
population  worshipped  in  other  churches.^ 

Upon  the  continent  the  power  of  the  church  was  still  felt  in 
politics,  especially  in  France  and  Italy.  Mention  has  been 
made  of  the  support  given  by  the  church  to  the  foes  of  the 
newly  formed  French  republic.  This  attitude  was  bitterly 
resented  by  the  civil  authorities,  especially  after  the  Dreyfus 
scandal,  and  efforts  began  to  be  directed  toward  dissolving 
the  bonds  which  united  the  two.  The  leaders  of  the  church 
showed  an  unwillingness  to  cooperate  with  the  government, 
and  the  government  felt  compelled  to  take  steps  separating 
church  and  state.  The  change  was  accompanied  by  rioting  Sepftntton 
and  the  destruction  of  property  by  Catholic  partisan^.  By 
the  law  of  1905  the  Concordat  of  1801  was  set  aside,  but  the 
people  were  allowed  to  form  associations  for  the  conduct  of 
religious  worship.  These  do  not  receive  any  aid  or  support 
from  the  state.  The  church  property  was  to  be  at  the  dis- 
posal of  these  "Associations  of  Worship."  The  opposition 
of  Pope  Pius  X  to  these  arrangements  prompted  the  passing 
in  1907  of  a  law  by  which  the  use  of  the  churches  was  to  be 
gratuitious  and  regulated  by  contracts  between  the  governing 
authorities  and  the  priests.  Ecclesiastical  buildings  other 
than  churches  have  been  taken  over  by  the  government  and 
put  to  other  uses. 

1  The  act  was  suspended  until  after  the  European  War  of  1914. 


in  France 


394     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


In  Italy  the  occupation  of  Rome  in  187 1  placed  the  Italian 
government  in  an  embarrassing  position  with  reference  to  the 
pope,  who  thereafter  regarded  himself  as  a  prisoner  in  the 
Vatican.  The  CathoUc  Church  continued  to  be  the  religion  of 
the  state,  and  similar  conditions  prevailed  in  Italy  as  in  France. 

Those  Catholics  whose  loyalty 
to  the  papacy  outweighed  their 
patriotism  formed  a  clerical 
clique  and  obstructed  many  of 
the  measures  undertaken  by  the 
govermnent.  When  Leo  XIII 
became  pope,  he  showed  a 
greater  breath  of  view  and  a 
better  appreciation  of  the  situ- 
ation than  his  predecessor,  and 
his  attitude  did  much  to  smooth 
over  the  difficulties  which  arose 
between  the  papal  court  and 
ttie  government.  His  successor, 
Pope  Pius  X,  although  respon- 
sible in  part  for  the  crisis  in  France,  succeeded  in  maintaining 
in  Italy  the  conditions  which  prevailed  under  his  predecessor. 
The  relations  between  church  and  state  are  still  deter- 
mined by  the  Law  of  Papal  Guarantees  passed  in  187 1.  The 
object  sought  by  this  law  was  the  ideal  of  Cavour,  a  "  free 
church  in  a  free  state."  By  its  provisions  the  pope's  person 
is  declared  sacred  and  inviolable;  he  has  his  own  court  and 
diplomatic  representatives,  his  own  postal  and  telegraph  ser- 
vice; and  certain  places  have  been  set  apart  as  entirely 
under  his  sovereignty. 

Bismarck  was  involved  in  a  bitter  struggle  with  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Germany  in  the  early  part  of  the  period.  In  his 
efforts  to  strengthen  the  power  of  the  state  in  Prussia,  especially 
in  its  control  of  education,  he  encountered  opposition  from  the 
Catholics  and  succeeded  in  securing  the  passage  of  some  very 


Pope  Leo  XIII 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRAtv        395 

oppressive  measures  known  as  the  May  Laws.  '*We  will  not  Bumarck 
go  to  Canossa,"  was  his  famous  utterance,  in  which  he  likened  ****  ***'' ' 
the  situation  to  the  mediaeval  contest  between  Henry  IV  and 
Pope  Gregory.  The  struggle  was  known  as  the  Kulturkampf, 
or  war  with  the  church.  Recognizing  socialism  and  not  the 
church  as  his  real  opponent,  Bismarck  effected  a  compromise 
with  the  latter  upon  the  accession  of  Leo  XIII,  whom  he 
believed  friendly  to  him. 

The  spread  of  secular  education  gave  rise  to  conflicts  between 
the  church  and  people  in  Spain,  where  the  Catholic  Church 
retains  perhaps  as  great  power  as  anywhere  in  Europe,  but 
thus  far  no  radical  change  has  taken  place.  The  establishment 
of  a  republic  in  Portugal  was  the  signal  for  a  violent  expul- 
sion of  the  rehgious  orders  from  the  country  and  the  separa- 
tion of  church  and  state,  as  these  changes  were  an  essential 
part  of  the  repubUcan  program.  Everywhere,  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  the  Balkan  region,  the  hold  of  the  church 
upon  the  people  as  an  institution  has  been  weakened.  This 
does  not  necessarily  imply  any  abandonment  of  religion,  but 
a  denial  to  the  church  organism  of  that  authority  which 
had  its  origin  in  the  dark  ages.  Everywhere  the  power  of  the 
people  has  been  in  evidence,  seeking  to  throw  off  anything 
savoring  of  tyranny,  be  it  in  the  domain  of  poUtics  or  of 
rehgion. 

152.  The  Spread  of  Socialism  and  the  Increase  of  Social 
Legislation.  —  The  spread  of  sociaUsm  and  of  socialistic  teach- 
ings has  undoubtedly  encouraged  this  tendency,  and  every  coun- 
try has  witnessed  an  increase  both  in  the  number  of  the  socialists 
and  in  their  political  activity.  Today  the  Social  Democrats  are 
credited  with  no  out  of  the  397  members  in  the  Reichstag.  In 
France  they  are  very  strongly  represented  in  the  Chamber  of  ^  rnac» 
Deputies  and  have  been  recognized  in  the  make-up  of  minis- 
tries; for  example,  the  Socialist  Briand  is  now  serving  for  the 
third  time  as  premier,  and  his  predecessor,  Viviani,  is  also  a 
member  of  a  socialist  party.    In  Italy  they  are  likewise  an 


396     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

aggressive  element,  but  have  perhaps  taken  a  less  conspicuous 
part  in  the  management  of  affairs. 

So  powerful  did  the  sociaUsts  become  in  Germany  in  the  first 
decade  of  the  Empire  that  Bismarck  was  alarmed  over  the 
situation  and  sought  by  repressive  legislation  on  the  one  hand 
and  by  reUef  measures  on  the  other  to  undermine  their  power 
and  alleviate  social  unrest.  The  tremendous  industrial  develop- 
ment which  marked  these  years  brought  with  it  an  increase  in 
the  industrial  population  and  gave  rise  to  problems  similar  to 
those  which  accompanied  the  Industrial  Revolution  elsewhere. 

Although  the  socialists  have  never  been  powerful  as  a  poHtical 
party  in  England,  schemes  of  social  reform  have  occupied  the 
attention  of  parliament  as  in  no  other  part  of  Europe,  except 
perhaps  in  Germany.  This  has  been  in  response  to  a  demand 
—  not  always  voiced  by  the  workers  themselves  but  no  less 
clearly  recognized  —  that  something  be  done  to  remove  the 
curse  of  poverty  and  the  misery  so  common  in  many  of  the 
great  industrial  centres.  Investigations  carried  on  by  experts 
in  London  and  in  York  revealed  the  most  glaring  conditions 
and  showed  the  necessity  of  remedial  legislation.  The  early 
factory  legislation  had  done  much  to  improve  the  lot  of  the 
workers,  but  had  neither  raised  wages  nor  remedied  the  de- 
moralizing effect  of  irregular  employment.  Beginning  in  1906, 
parliament,  therefore,  passed  employer's  compensation  laws, 
compulsory  insurance  acts,  and  old  age  pensions,  striving  to 
safeguard  at  one  and  the  same  time  both  state  and  worker. 

In  1^06  jsi  Workingmen's  Compensation  Act  made  every 
employer  liable  for  compensation  in  case  of  injury,  except 
where  the  employee  had  been  guilty  of  ''serious  and  wilful 
misconduct."  The  law,  as  finally  enacted,  protects  all  manual 
laborers  and  domestic  servants  receiving  less  than  £250  a 
year.  The  Old  Age  Pension  Act  of  1909  awards  a  pension 
to  every  person,  male  or  female,  over  seventy  years  of  age 
who  has  been  a  British  subject  for  twenty  years  and  a  resi- 
dent of   Great  Britain  for  twelve,  provided  his  or  her  income 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY       397 

is  less  than  £31.105.  The  most  recent  act,  that  of  191 1, 
provides  a  system  of  insurance,  designed  (i)  to  safeguard 
workers  in  the  case  of  loss  of  health;  (2)  to  prevent  and 
cure  sickness,  and  (3)  to  insure  against  unemployment.  All 
workers  having  less  than  a  specified  income  from  property 
must  insure  and  pay  a  certain  quota  themselves.  The  bal- 
ance is  made  up  by  contributions  from  the  state  and  the  em- 
ployer. In  certain  cases,  where  the  wages  are  very  low,  the 
worker's  share  falls  upon  the  employer.  In  return  for  these 
payments  the  worker  is  entitled  to  sick  benefits,  free  medical 
attendance,  and  free  treatment  at  hospitals  to  be  supplied  by 
the  state.  The  provision  against  unemployment  only  applies 
to  two  trades,  building  and  engineering,  and  provides  for  pay- 
ments in  case  of  unemployment  not  due  to  misconduct,  strikes, 
or  lockouts.  The  fund  is  maintained  by  contributions  from 
the  employees,  the  employers,  and  the  state.  These  measures 
were  carried  through  parliament  largely  through  the  instrumen- 
tahty  of  Lloyd  George,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  one  of  the 
most  commanding  figures  of  recent  times. 

With  this  legislation  went  an  effort,  for  which  Lloyd  George 
was  also  responsible,  to  shift  the  burden  of  taxation  to  shoulders 
better  able  to  bear  the  load,  as  was  illustrated  by  his  budget  of 
1909,  which  occasioned  the  bitter  struggle  between  the  House 
of  Commons  and  the  House  of  Lords.  As  the  worker  is  also  a 
voter  and  his  voting  strength  is  on  the  increase,  the  party  in 
power  must  aim  to  preserve  his  support  if  it  would  hold  its 
power. 

In  France  the  form  of  sociaUsm  known  as  Syndicalism  has 
secured  a  strong  foothold  and  from  there  has  spread  to  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  Syndicalists  would  organize  all 
workingmen  into  one  grand  consolidated  union  in  order  to 
dominate  the  whole  field  of  industry  by  the  strength  of  their 
numbers  and  solidarity.  As  yet  they  have  had  little  influence 
in  shaping  legislation.  The  power  of  the  industrial  classes  was 
illustrated  in  the  great  railway  strike  of  1910,  which  threatened 


398     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


to  paralyze  industry  throughout  the  country.  Briand  made 
his  name  famous  by  breaking  the  strike.  He  summoned  all 
the  raihoad  employees  back  to  their  work  by  issuing  a  mili- 
tary call  to  the  colors  —  a  summons  which  no  patriotic  French- 
man could  well  refuse  to  heed. 

153.  Intellectual  and  Scientific  Progress  in  Europe.  —  The 
various  measures  to  which  references  have  been  made  indicate 
an  intellectual  progress  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  Europe 
during  this  period  which  itself  calls  for  special  mention.  This 
was  the  age  of  Darwin,  the  author  of  a  theory  of  the  origin  of 
species  which  shook  the  scientific  world  to  its  very  foundations. 
His  results,  pubUshed  in  1859,  have  furnished  the  basis  for  much 
of  the  study  of  biology  since  that  time.  The  greatest  work  of 
Pasteur  was  done  during  this  period,  and  his  researches  have 
had  much  to  do  with  the  eUmination  of  disease  and  suffering. 
The  progress  in  sanitation  has  enabled  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment to  carry  to  a  successful  conclusion  a  great  work  such 
as  the  Panama  Canal,  as  the  scourges  of  malaria  and  of  yellow 
fever  were  responsible  in  no  small  measure  for  the  failure  of  the 
French  company  to  complete  the  task.  Roentgen  and  his 
X-rays  have  given  us  a  new  science,  that  of  radiography,  and 
illustrate  the  scientific  marvels  of  the  present  age.  These  and 
other  discoveries  in  the  fields  of  physics,  chemistry,  and  mathe- 
matics helped  to  make  possible  the  wonderful  results  in  the 
industrial  world  which  were  described  in  a  preceding  chapter. 

With  this  intellectual  progress  woman  has  been  still  further 
emancipated  from  her  position  of  inferiority  and  has  demon- 
strated as  never  before  her  ability  to  compete  with  man  in  the 
various  spheres  of  activity  open  to  both.  She  has  been  admitted 
to  higher  institutions  of  learning  and  has  entered  many  of  the 
professions.  In  some  cases,  as  has  been  noted,  she  has  been 
intrusted  with  the  ballot  and  with  political  office.  The  names 
of  women  are  to  be  found  in  ever-increasing  numbers  among  the 
great  leaders  of  thought  and  among  the  benefactors  of  mankind. 

Taking  Europe  as  a  whole,  one  of  the  most  important  ten- 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        399 

dencies  of  recent  times  has  been  a  concerted  movement  in  favor 
of  peace  —  a  peace  secured  not  at  the  expense  of  costly  arma- 
ments and  heavy  war  budgets,  crushing  the  people  under  their 
weight,  but  a  peace  resting  upon  the  more  permanent  foundation 
of  reason  and  good  will.  The  necessity  for  a  readjustment  of 
their  relations  to  each  other  was  brought  home  to  each  nation 
with  greater  force  as  time  passed  and  their  rivalry  became  more 
acute  in  the  economic  and  political  world.  Many  of  the  states 
felt  that  their  internal  development  was  seriously  handicapped 
and  retarded  by  the  diversion  of  so  much  of  their  labor  and 
wealth  into  channels  which  yielded  httle  real  return.  The  world 
was  surprised  in  1898  by  the  announcement  that  the  autocratic 
ruler  of  Russia,  the  Tsar  Nicholas  II,  had  summoned  all  the 
powers  represented  at  his  court  to  a  congress  to  consider  the 
advisability  of  Hghtening  the  military  burdens  under  which  their 
peoples  staggered.  In  1899,  in  response  to  the  call,  the  first 
Hague  Conference  assembled  to  discuss  his  proposals.  The 
opposition  of  Germany  to  any  change  in  her  military  system 
shattered  the  hope  of  a  general  disarmament,  but  the  delegates 
agreed  to  maintain  a  permanent  court  of  arbitration  at  the 
Hague  to  which  nations  might  submit  their  differences  if  they 
so  desired.  The  conference  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  use  of 
arbitration  and  mediation,  and  when  the  second  conference 
met  in  1907  the  advocates  of  peace  won  still  further  advantages 
which,  however  slight,  seemed  to  bring  nearer  the  desired  goal. 
This  second  conference  was  much  more  representative  in  char- 
acter than  the  first,  so  much  so  in  fact  that  it  savored  more 
of  an  international  congress  than  a  European  assembly.  Many 
obstacles  block  the  path  to  the  attainment  of  world  peace. 
"The  vested  interests  which  thrive  on  armaments,  the  Yellow 
Press  which  lives  by  sensation,  the  nervous  patriot  who  dreams 
of  invasion,  the  soldier  who  glorifies  the  bracing  influence  of 
war,  are  formidable  but  not  insuperable  obstacles  to  the  reign 
of  law."  The  existence  of  interparliamentary  unions,  and  the 
peace  propaganda  of  individuals  like  Andrew  Carnegie,  Baron 


TlM  Pmm 


400     ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Etournelles  de  Constant,  and  Baroness  von  Suttner  are  little  by 
little  bearing  fruit.  Although  unable  to  prevent  the  European 
War  of  1 914,  their  labors  have  made  the  people  realize  as  never 
before  the  horrors  and  disasters  consequent  upon  war. 

SUGGESTIVE  TOPICS  AND  QUESTIONS  FOR 
FURTHER  STUDY 

I.  What  restrictions  were  placed  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  by 
Bismarck?  2.  Show  in  tabular  form  the  government  of  the  German  Empire, 
making  as  column  headings:  elements;  how  chosen;  term;  powers;  Umi- 
tations.  3.  Show  that  the  Hohenzollerns  beHeve  in  the  Divine  Right  of 
Kings.  4.  To  what  extent  is  the  question  of  states'  rights  also  a  German 
problem?  5.  Define  "kulturkampf."  6.  To  what  did  Bismarck  refer 
when  he  said,  "We  will  not  go  to  Canossa."  7.  Explain  the  origin  of  the 
socialist  movement  in  Germany  and  give  a  biographical  sketch  of  Karl  Marx. 
8.  Explain  how  Germany  provides  for  the  working  class.  9.  Discuss  Bis- 
marck's views  concerning  protection.  10.  What  are  the  main  features  of 
Germany's  protectionist  system?  11.  Review  the  growth  of  the  Russian 
empire  touching  on  these  topics:  the  dukes  of  Moscow;  the  Golden  Horde; 
Ivan  the  Terrible;  Peter  the  Great;  Catherine  the  Great;  Alexander  I. 
12.  Explain  the  origin  and  growth  of  nihiUsm.  13.  Comment  upon  the 
phrase  "serf  of  the  state."  14.  Give  an  account  of  the  industrial  revo- 
lution in  Russia  and  discuss  its  political  results.  15.  Compare  Witte  with 
Colbert.  16.  Discuss  these  topics:  censorship  of  the  press;  bureaucracy; 
Russification  of  Finland;  poHcy  of  Plehve;  "Bloody  Sunday";  terrorists; 
zemstva;  duma;  general  strike;  "Black Hundred";  Council  of  the  Empire. 
17.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  Third  RepubUc  of  France  estab- 
lished? 18.  Compare  the  invasions  of  France  of  1870  and  1914.  19.  Give 
an  account  of  the  commune  and  distinguish  between  a  communist  and  a 
sociahst.  20.  Show  in  tabular  form  similar  to  that  in  question  2  the  pres- 
ent government  of  France.  21.  Give  an  account  of  the  origin  and  outcome 
of  the  Dreyfus  case.  22.  Summarize  the  history  of  Spain  from  the  time  of 
Napoleon  to  the  present  day,  touching  on  these  topics:  conditions  in  Spain 
during  Napoleon's  rule;  the  constitution  of  181 2;  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons;  the  question  of  the  Spanish  candidature;  the  Carlist  revolt; 
Spain  since  1870.  23.  Describe  the  Italian  constitution.  24.  Discuss  the 
extension  of  the  suffrage  in  Italy.  25.  Discuss  the  ideals  of  the  political 
parties  of  modern  Italy.  26.  Give  an  account  of  the  ministry  of  Crispi. 
27.  What  are  the  chief  problems  of  modern  Italy?  28.  What  is  meant  by 
the  "  Victorian  Era"?  29.  Give  biographical  sketches  of  DisraeU  and  Glad- 
stone. 30.  Show  that  parliament  really  rules  England.  31.  Contrast  the 
responsiveness  of  the  British  and  American  governments  to  popular  will. 
32.  Contrast  the  abolition  of  religious  grievances  in  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  S3-  What  is  the  Irish  question?  34.  Summarize  the  main  points 
in  the  relations  between  England  and  Ireland  since  the  outbreak  of  the 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        401 

European  War  of  19 14.     35.   Give  the  provisions  of  recent  British  legisla- 
tion concerning  taxation,  old  age  pensions. 

Collateral  Reading 

I.  Organization  of  the  German  Empire. 

Priest,  Germany  since  1740,   pp.    107-23.     Tower,  Germany  of 
Today,    pp.     25-68.     Seignobos,    Contemporary    Civilization, 
pp.  296-99.     Ogg,  The  Governments  of  Europe,  pp.  198-244. 
Hayes,  Modern  Europe,  Vol.  II,  pp.  397-403. 
II.  The  Chancellorship  of  Bismarck. 

Hazen,  Europe  since  18 15,  pp.  305-23.  Priest,  pp.  124-45. 
Orth,  Socialism  and  Democracy  in  Europe,  pp.  146-70.  Jane, 
Mettemich  to  Bismarck,  pp.  253-74.     Hayes,  Vol.  II.  pp.  404- 

15- 

III.  Socialism  in  Germany. 

Roberts,  Monarchical  SociaUsm  in  Germany,  Chapters  I,  II,  V,  VI, 
VIII,  X.  Howard,  The  Cause  and  Extent  of  the  Recent 
Industrial  Progress  of  Germany,  Chapters  III,  V.  Macdonald, 
The  Socialist  Movement,  pp.  205-17.  Orth  (as  in  II),  also 
pp.  171-206.     Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  253-^1. 

IV.  Russia  to  the  War  with  Japan. 

Hazen,  pp.  645-80.     Van  Gergen,  Story  of  Russia,  Chapters   I, 
VII,  VIII,  X,  XIV,  XVII-XIX,  XXI,  XXIV-XXVIII.     Rob- 
inson and  Beard,  Development  of  Modern    Europe,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  261-89.     Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  452-78. 
V.  Russia  from  the  War  with  Japan  to  the  Present  Day. 

Hazen,  pp.  706-18.     Van  Bergen,  Chapter  XXIX.     Robinson  and 
Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  289-302.     Hayes,  Vol.  H,  pp.  478-87. 
VI.  The  Papacy  under  Pius  IX. 

Barry,    The    Papacy   in   Modem  Times,  pp.    227-52.      Hayes, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  226-30, 
VII.  The  Third  Republic  of  France. 

Poincare,  How  France  is  Governed  (entire).     Ogg,  pp.  301-34. 
Hazen,  pp.  329-75.     Gooch,  History  of  Our  Time,  pp.  34-56- 
Orth,  pp.   75-117.     Macdonald,   pp.    217-21.     Robinson    and 
Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  151-79-     Hayes,  Vol.  II,  pp.  331-67. 
VIII.  England  between  the  Reform  Waves. 

Hazen,  pp.  439-96.     McCarthy,  A  Short  History  of  Our  Times, 

pp.  397-413,  432-40.     Larson,  History  of  England,  pp.  S35"S6- 

Ogg,  pp.   80-5,   147-54,  176-9.     Cross,  A  History  of  England 

and  Greater  Britain,  pp.  928-82.    Hayes,  Vol.  II.  pp.  278-90. 

IX.  The  Cabinet  System  and  Parliament. 

Bagehot,  The  EngUsh  Constitution,  Chapter  II.  Ogg,  pp.  48-76. 
1 1 7-147.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  193-8-  Dbert, 
Parliament,  pp.  1-2 19.  Cross,  pp.  529,  614-7,  642,  667,  738, 
917,  1078-80.    Hayes,  Vol.  II,  290-7. 


402     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

X.  The  Irish  Question. 

Johnston  and  Spencer,  Ireland's  Story,  Chapters  XVII-XXX. 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  220-32.  Hazen,  pp.  497- 
517.  Larson,  pp.  580-92;  631-2.  McCarthy,  Chapters  XXIII, 
XXIV,  XXVIII,  XXLX,  XXX,  XXXIX.  Cross,  pp.  880-2, 
916-20,  932-3,  943-4,  950-2,  991-5,  1086-9.  Hayes,  Vol.  II, 
pp.  319-26. 
XI.  Recent  English  History. 

Tuell  and  Hatch,  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  446-74.  Ogg, 
pp.  97-116,  158-66,183-91.  Gooch,  pp.  1-33.  Beard,  English 
Historians  (Clarke),  pp.  608-22.  Orth,  pp.  207-49.  Mac- 
donald,  pp.  229-35.  Larson,  pp.  617-30,  636-9.  Synge,  Social 
life  in  England,  pp.  369-93.  Cross,  pp.  1071-86.  Hayes, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  307-19. 

Source  Studies 

1.  Bismarck  and  modem  Germany.     WiUiam  II.     Views  on  Cabinet  gov- 

ernment. Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings  in  Modern  European  His- 
tory, Vol.  II,  pp.  176-8.  Kulturkampf.  Ibid.,  pp.  178-85.  State 
socialism.  Ihid.,  pp.  185-92.  William  II's  speech  on  German  world 
policy  (1897).  Ibid.,  pp.  193-6.  Conservative  election  manifesto  on 
imperiaUsm  and  socialism.  Ibid.,  pp.  196-8.  William  II's  first  ad- 
dress to  the  Reichstag.  Ibid.,  pp.  198-200.  The  causes  of  friction 
between  William  II  and  Bismarck.  Ibid.,  pp.  200-2.  WilHam  II's 
letter  to  Bismarck  on  his  resignation.  Ibid.,  pp.  202-3.  Socialism  in 
the  election  of  1907.     Ibid.,  pp.  204-7. 

2.  The  Russian  Empire  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.     Alexander  I  and  his 

plans  for  reform.  Ibid.,  pp.  338-43.  Nicholas  I's  abolition  of  the 
PoHsh  constitution.  Ibid.,  pp.  343-5.  Domestic  life  in  the  family  of  a 
Russian  noble.  Ibid.,  pp.  345-8.  Emancipation  of  the  serfs.  Ibid., 
pp.  348-53.  Kropotkin,  Terror  in  Russia.  Prisons,  Chapters  I  and 
II.  Executions,  Chapter  III.  The  exiles.  Chapter  IV.  Provoking 
conduct  of  the  police,  Chapter  VI.  The  union  of  Russian  men.  Chap- 
ter VII.  Repression,  Chapter  VIII.  NihiUsm.  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  353-4.  Siberia.  Ibid.,  pp.  354-62.  Letter  of  the  revo- 
lutionary committee  to  Alexander  III.  Ibid.,  pp.  364-67.  The  in- 
dustrial revolution  in  Russia.  Ibid.,  pp.  367-71.  The  struggle  for 
liberty  under  Nicholas  II.     Ibid.,  pp.  371-81. 

3.  Austria-Hungary  since  1866.     /iiJ.,  pp.  165-75. 

4.  France  under  the  Third  Republic.     The  estabUshment  of  the  third  repub- 

lic. /6i(f.,  pp.  208-15.  The  Dreyfus  affair.  /ij<f.,  pp.  219-23.  Sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state.  Ibid.,  pp.  223-33.  Political  parties  in 
France.    Ibid.,  pp.  233-7. 

5.  Political  reforms  in  England.     Extension  of  the  suffrage.     Tuell  and 

Hatch,  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  437-42.  Cheyney,  Readings 
in  English  History,  pp.  735-9.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  239- 
58.    Parliamentary  reform.     Cheyney,  p.   747.     Tuell  and  Hatch, 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY        403 

pp.  459-66.  Hayes,  British  Social  Politics,  pp.  421-505.  White  and 
Notestein,  Source  Problems  in  EngUsh  History,  pp.  331-66.  Local 
government  reform.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  H,  pp.  267-^.  Cabinet 
government.     Ibid.,  pp.  258-266.     Tuell  and  Hatch,  pp.  467-74. 

6.  Social  reforms  in  England.     Freedom  of  discussion  and  religious  toler- 

ance. Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  n,  pp.  270-8.  Cheyney,  pp.  674-g, 
739-42.  Humanitarian  legislation.  Cheyney,  pp.  669-74.  Rob- 
inson and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  279-86.  Workmen's  compensation. 
Hayes,  pp.  20-76.  Trade  unionism.  Hayes,  pp.  77-106.  Child 
welfare.  Hayes,  pp.  107-129.  Kendall,  Source-book  of  English  His- 
tory, pp.  401-6.  Old  age  pensions.  Hayes,  pp.  130-184.  The  unem- 
ployed. Hayes,  pp.  185-216.  Sweated  labor.  Hayes,  pp.  217-62. 
The  housing  and  land  problem.  Hayes,  pp.  263-346.  The  Lloyd 
George  budget.     Hayes,  pp.  263-420.     Tuell  and  Hatch,  pp.  446-58. 

7.  The  war  against  poverty,  socialism.     Extracts    from  More's  Utopia. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  478-81.  Owen's  reasons  for  expect- 
ing the  speedy  arrival  of  the  millenium.  Ibid.,  pp.  481-3.  Fourier's 
scheme  for  communal  societies.  Ibid.,  pp.  483-5.  The  principles  of 
trade  unionism.  Ibid.,  pp.  485-7.  The  extent  of  poverty  in  the 
English  city  of  York.  Ibid.,  pp.  487-9.  Extracts  from  the  Com- 
munist Manifesto.  Ibid.,  pp.  489-493.  Bullock,  Readings  in  Eco- 
nomics, pp.  668-81.  The  socialist  program.  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  493-5.  A  Fabian  program  of  reform.  Ibid.,  pp.  495~7- 
Arguments  against  socialism.  Ibid.,  pp.  497-500.  Bullock.  Ibid., 
pp.  681-705.  Leo  XIII  on  sociaUsm  and  labor  reforms.  Robinson 
and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  500-5. 

8.  The  Irish  question.     How  tithes  for  protestant  clergy  were  collected  in 

Ireland.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Vol.  II,  pp.  293-95.  Jo^"  Bright's 
plea  for  the  disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  church  in  Ireland. 
Ibid.,  pp.  295-7.  The  demand  for  land  reform  in  Ireland.  Ibid., 
pp.  297-300.  Gladstone  on  Home  Rule.  Ibid.,  pp.  301-2.  English 
argument  against  Home  Rule.  Ibid.,  pp.  302-5.  Tuell  and  Hatch, 
pp.  442-6.  Irish  Home  Rule  Bill  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Cheyney,  pp.  748-51- 

Suggestions  for  Map  Work 
I.  On  an  outline  map  of  Europe  indicate  the  geographical  location  of 
industries.  2.  On  an  outUne  map  of  Europe  show  the  territorial  arrange- 
ment of  Europe  at  the  present  time.  3.  Show  the  distribution  of  the  princi- 
pal races.  4.  Of  population.  5.  On  an  outUne  map  of  the  British  Isles 
indicate  all  places  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

Map  References 

Current  periodicals.     Year-books. 

Robertson-Bartholomew.  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  Oxford 
Press.  Europe.  Distribution  of  Population,  No.  2.  Ethnographical, 
No.  3.     Europe  Industrial  and  Economic,  No.  4. 


404     ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Bibliography 

Andrews.     Development  of  Modern  Europe.     Scribner, 

Bagehot.     The  English  Constitution.    Appleton. 

Barry.     The  Papacy  in  Modern  Times.     Holt. 

Beard,    Introduction  to  the  English  Historians.     Macmillan. 

Bullock.     Selected  Readings  in  Economics.     Ginn. 

Cheyney.     Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England.     Macmillan, 

Cheyney.    Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 

Cross.    A  History  of  England  and  Greater  Britain.     Macmillan. 

Duruy.    History  of  Modern  Times.    Holt. 

Ellwood.    Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems.    American  Book  Company. 

Fyflfe.     History  of  Modern  Europe.     Holt. 

Gardiner.    Studenfs  History  of  England.     Longmans. 

Gooch.    History  of  Our  Time.     Holt. 

Grant.    History  of  Europe.     Longmans. 

Hayes.     British  Social  Politics.     Ginn. 

Hayes.      The  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe,  Vol.   II, 

Macmillan. 
Hazen.     Europe  since  1815.     Holt. 

Henderson.    A  Short  History  of  Germany.    Two  volumes  in  one.    Macmillan. 
Howard.     The  Cause  and  Extent  of  the  Recent  Industrial  Progress  of  Germany. 

Houghton  Mifflin. 
Howard.     The  German  Etnpire.     Macmillan. 
Hunter.    Socialists  at  Work.     Macmillan. 
Ilbert.    Parliament.     Holt. 

Jane.     Metternich  to  Bismarck,  181 5-1878.    Oxford  University  Press. 
Johnston  and  Spencer.    Ireland's  Story.    Houghton  Mifflin. 
Kendall.    Source  Book  of  English  History.     Macmillan. 
Kropotkin.     Terror  hi  Russia.     Methuen  and  Company. 
Larson.    History  of  England.    Holt. 

Lichtenberger.     Germany  and  its  Evolution  in  Modern  Times.     Holt. 
McCarthy.    A  Short  History  of  Our  Times.    Harper. 
Macdonald.     The  Socialist  Movement.    Holt. 

Miiller.    Political  History  of  Recent  Times.    American  Book  Company. 
Ogg.    Governments  of  Europe.    Macmillan. 
Orth.    Socialism  and  Democracy  in  Europe.     Holt. 
Poincar^.    How  France  is  Governed.    McBride.  * 

Priest.    Germany  since  1740.     Ginn. 
Roberts.     Monarchical  Socialism  in  Germany.     Scribner. 
Robinson  and  Beard.     Development  of  Modern  Europe. '  Volume  II.  Ginn. 
Robinson  and  Beard.    Readings  in  Modern  European  History.     Volume  II. 

Ginn. 
Rose,  The  Development  of  the  European  Nations,  1870-IP14.     Two  Volumes 

in  one.     Putnam. 
Seignobos.     Contemporary  Civilization.     Scribner. 
Seignobos.    Political  History  of  Contemporary  Europe.     Holt. 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  DEMOCRACY       405 

Simkhovitch.     Marxism  vs.  Socialism.     Holt. 

Synge.    Social  Life  in  England.    Barnes. 

Tower.     Germany  of  Today.     Holt. 

Traill.    Social  England.    Volume  V,  Section  II.     Volume  VI,  Sections  I 

and  II.     Putnam. 
TueU  and  Hatch.    Selected  Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn. 
Van  Bergen.    Story  of  Russia.     American  Book  Company. 
White  and  Notestein.    Source  Problems  in  English  History.    Harper. 


APPENDIX  I 

IMPORTANT  EVENTS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

1682-1725     Peter  the  Great 

1688  The  Glorious  Revolution  in  England 

1689  Bill  of  Rights 
1697     Peace  of  Ryswick 

1701     Act  of  Settlement  in  England 
1701-1714     War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
1703     Methuen  Treaty  between  England  and  Portugal 
1707     Parliamentary  Union  of  England  and  Scotland 
1709     Pultava 
1713     Peace  of  Utrecht 

1740-1786     Frederick  the  Great  (born  in  171 2) 
1740-1748     War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 
1748     Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
1751-1761     Struggle  for  India 
1754     Albany  Congress.     Franklin's  Plan 
1754-1763     French  and  Indian  War 
1756-1763     Seven  Years'  War 
1765     Stamp  Act 

1770-1782     Lord  North's  Ministry 
1772     First  Partition  of  Poland 
1775-1783     War  for  American  Independence 
1783     Peace  of  Versailles 

1783-1801     Ministry  of  William  Pitt  the  Younger 
1787     Assembly  of  Notables 
1789     Meeting  of  the  Estates  General 

1789     Fall  of  the  Bastille.     Abolition  of  Privilege.     Declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man.    Removal  of  the  King  and  Queen  to  Paris. 
1791-1792     Legislative  Assembly 
1792     Outbreak  of  War  between  France  and  Europe 
1792-1795     National  Convention 

1792  September  Massacres.     Abolition  of  the  Monarchy  in  France 

1793  Execution  of  Louis  XVI 

1793  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
1793-1794     Reign  of  Terror 

1794  Fall  of  Robespierre  (Thermidor) 


408    ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

1795-1799     The  Directory 

1795  Final  Partition  of  Poland 

1796  Bonaparte's  Campaign  in  Italy 

1797  Peace  of  Campo  Formio 

1798  Battle  of  the  Nile 

1799  Bonaparte's  Coup-d'Etat 
1799-1804     The  Consulate 

1800  Marengo.     Hohenlinden 

1801  Parliamentary  Union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain 

1802  Peace  of  Amiens 
1804-1814     Napoleon  I,  Emperor 

1805  Trafalgar.     Austerlitz 

1806  End  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.     Jena 

1806  Berlin  Decree 

1807  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  by  England 
1807     Friedland.     Peace  of  Tilsit 

1807     Orders  in  Council  blockading  France 
1807     Milan  Decree 
1808-1814     Peninsular  War 
1809     Wagram 

1812  Invasion  of  Russia 
1813-1814     War  of  Liberation 

1813  Dresden.     Leipzig,  "  Battle  of  the  Nations  " 

1814  First  Abdication  of  Napoleon 
1814-1815     Congress  of  Vienna 

1814  Invention  of  the  Locomotive 

1815  Waterloo.     Foundation  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
1819     Carlsbad  Decrees 

1821-1832     War  of  Greek  Independence 

1830     July  Revolution  at  Paris 

1830     Opening  of  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Railway 

1830-1848     Reign  of  Louis  Philippe 

1830     Independence  of  Belgium 

1832  First  Reform  Act  in  England 

1833  Formation  of  the  ZoUverein 
1837-1901     Reign  of  Queen  Victoria 

1838     Beginning  of  the  Chartist  Movement.     Anti-corn  Law  League 

1840     Penny  Postage  in  England 

1842     Treaty  of  Nanking  between  England  and  China 

1846    Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 

1848     February  Revolution  in   Paris.     Revolutions  in  Italy,  Austria 

and  Germany 
1848-1849     Parliament  of  Frankfort 

1850  Conference  at  Olmutz 

1851  Coup-d'£tat  of  Louis  Napoleon 
1852-1870     Second  French  Empire 
1854-1856     Crimean  War 


APPENDIX   I  409 

1867-1868     Sepoy  Mutiny 

1868-1860     Treaties  of  Tien-tsin  and  Peking 

1869     War  of  France  and  Sardinia  against  Austria.     Solferino 

1860     Expedition  of  Garibaldi 

1861-1888     Reign  of  William  I  of  Prussia  (German  Emperor  after  187 1) 

1864     War  of  Austria  and  Prussia  against  Denmark 

1866     Austro-Prussian  War.     Konigratz 

1866  Atlantic  Cable  Successful 

1867  Second  Reform  Act  in  England 
1867     Dominion  of  Canada 

1869     Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church 

1869  Opening  of  the  Suez  Canal    ' 
1870-1871     Franco- German  War 

1870  Sedan.     Establishment  of  the  Third  Republic  in  France 
.  1870     Irish  Land  Act 

1871  Establishment  of  the  German  Empire.     Peace  of  Frankfort 
1871     Abolition  of  Feudalism  in  Japan 

1876     Adoption  of  a  Republican  Constitution  in  France 
1877-1878     Russo-Turkish  War 

1878  Peace  of  San  Stefano.     Congress  of  Berlin 

1879  Dual  alliance  between  Austria-Hungary  and  Germany  (not  pub 

lie  until  1888) 

1881  Gladstone's  Irish  Land  Act 

1882  Triple  Alliance  between  Austria,  Germany  and  Italy 
1884     Berlin  Conference 

1886     Third  Reform  Act  in  England 

1888     Beginning  of  the  reign  of  William  II  of  Germany 

1890     Dismissal  of  Bismarck 

1892     Witte  Minister  of  Finance  in  Russia 

1892-1894     Last  Ministry  of  Gladstone 

1894     The  Dreyfus  case 

1894-1896     War  between  Japan  and  China 

1897  Lease  of  Kiao-chao  by  Germany 

1898  Spanish-American  War 

1898     Lease  of  Port  Arthur  by  Russia 

1898  Lease  of  Wei-hai-wei  by  England 

1899  First  Hague  Peace  Conference 
1899-1902     Boer  War 

1900  The  Boxer  Revolt 

1900  Buelow  Chancellor  of  Germany 

1900  Commonwealth  of  Australia 

1901  Death  of  Queen  Victoria.     Accession  of  Edward  VII 

1902  Anglo- Japanese  Alliance 

1902  Education  Act  in  England 

1903  Irish  Land  Act 
1904-1906     Russo-Japanese  War 
1906     Fall  of  Port  Arthur.     Mukden. 


410  ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROEPAN  HISTORY 

1905  Separation  Law  of  Church  and  State  in  France 

1906  The  First  Duma 

1906  Workingmen's  Compensation  Act  in  England 

1908  Young  Turk  Movement  in  Ottoman  Empire.     Annexation  of 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.     Independence  of  Bulgaria 

1908  Asquith  prime  minister 

1908  Annexation  of  Congo  Free  State  by  Belgium 

1909  Old  Age  Pension  Act  in  England 

1909  Revolution  in  Constantinople.     Accession  of  Mohammed  V 

1909  Lloyd  George's  Budget 

1910  The  Union  of  South  Africa 

1910  Establishment  of  the  Republic  of  Portugal 

1911  Parliament  Act  in  England 
1911  Chinese  Republic  Proclaimed 
1911-1912     The  Turco-Italian  War 
1912-1913     The  Balkan  Wars 

1914  Disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  Wales 

1914  Asquith's  Home  Rule  Bill.     Discontent  in  Ulster 

1914  Outbreak  of  The  European  War 

1914  England  announces  the  annexation  of  Cyprus  and  Egypt 

1915  Entrance  of  Italy  into  The  European  War 

1915  Bulgaria  joins  the  Central  Powers 

1916  Entrance  of  Roumania  into  The  European  War 


APPENDIX   II 

GENERAL   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

\_Books  marked  (*)  are  especially  useful  for  high  school  classes!] 

American  Year  Book   (Published  Annually) Appleton.     $3.00 

Andrews Historical  Development  of  Modern 

Europe Putnam.     Two    volumes 

in  one.     $2.75 

Asakawa The  Russo-Japanese  Conflict Houghton  Mifflin.    $2.00 

Bagehot The  English  Constitution Appleton.      Net,  $2.00 

Barry The  Papacy  in  Modern  Times Holt.     $.50 

*  Beard Introduction    to    the    English    His- 

torians   Macmillan.     $1.60 

*  Becker Beginnings  of  the  American  People .  Houghton  Mifflin.    $1.25 

*  Belloc The  French   Revolution Holt.     $.50 

Beveridge What  is  Back  of  the  War?..  .'. Bobbs-Merrill.     Net, 

$2.00 
Bland,  Brown,  and 

Tawney English   Economic  History:    Select 

Documents Macmillan.     $3.00 

Bradley Canada Holt.     $.50 

Brinkley-Kikuchi  ....  A  History  of  the  Japanese  People . . .  The     Encyclopedia    Bri- 

tannica  Co.    $3.00 

Bryce The  Ancient  Roman  Empire  and  the 

British  Empire  in  India Oxford  University  Preas. 

$1.90 
Bullard The  Diplomacy  of  the  Great  War Macmillan.     $1.25 

*  Bullock Selected  Readings  in  Economics Ginn.     $2.25 

Burgess The  European  War  of  1914 McClurg.      Net,  $1.00 

Buxton Europe  and  the  Turks Methuen     Co.    London. 

Net,    IS. 
Cambridge  Modern  History 
Volumes  V,  VI,  VIII,  IX,    X,    XI,  XII Macmillan.    $4.00  emcb 

*  Cantlie  and  Jones .  .  .  Sun  Yat  Sen Revell.     $1.25 

Cesaresco Cavour Macmillan.     $.75 

Channing The  Jefifersonian  System Harper,     i^el,  $2.00 

Cheyney European  Background  of  American 

History Harper.      Net,  $2.00 

*  Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and 

Social  History  of  England Macmillan.     $1.40 


412  ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

*  Cheyney Readings  in  English  History Ginn\     $i .80 

*  .       Short  History  of  England Ginn.     $1.40 

Chinese  Year  Book,  1914  Edition Button.     $3.50 

Clarke Modern  Spain Cambridge       Universit; 

Press.     $2.00 

*  Colby Selections  from  the  Sources  of  Eng- 

lish History Longmans.      Net,  $1.50 

Collected    Documents    Relating    to  the  Outbreak  of   the 

European  War. Fisher  Unwin.     London 

$•25 

Cross A  History  of  England  and  Greater 

Britain. Macmillan.     $2.50 

Cunningham Growth    of    EngUsh    Industry    and 

Commerce,  Volume  II Cambridge        Universit; 

Press.     $2.75 
Curtler A  Short  History  of  English  Agricul- 
ture   Oxford  University  Press 

$2.15 
Day History  of  Commerce Longmans.      Net,  $2.00 

*  Dow Atlas  of  European  History Holt.     $1 .50 

Duggan The  Eastern  Question .  .Longmans.     $1.00 

Duniy History  of  Modern  Times Holt.     $1.60 

Ellwood Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Prob- 
lems   American  Book  Co.  $1.0 

*  Fisher Napoleon Holt.     $.50 

*  Fiske The  American  Revolution Houghton  MifHin.    2  vol 

umes.     $2.00  each 
Fling Source  Problems  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution   Harper.     $1.10 

Forbes,  Toynbee, 

Mitrany,  Hogarth  .  . The  Balkans Oxford  Press  $i.75 

Fordham Short  History  of  English  Rural  Life.  .Scribners.     $i.oo         ' 

*  Foumier Napoleon Holt.     $2.00 

Freeman Atlas  to  the  Historical  Geography  of 

Europe Longmans.     Vol.  I,  Texl 

Net,    $4.00.      Vol.    H 
Maps,  Net,  $2.00 
Fyfife History  of  Modern  Europe Holt.     $2.75 

*  Gardiner Atlas  of  English  History Longmans.     $1.50 

Student's  History  of  England Longmans.     $3.00 

The  French  Revolution .Longmans.     $1.00 

Gibbins Industry  in  England Scribner.     $2.50 

*  Gibbons The  New  Map  of  Europe Century.      Net,  $2.00 

*  Gooch History  of  Our  Time Holt.     $.50 

*  Grant History  of  Europe Longmans.     $2.25 

Green History  of  the  English  People Harper.     4  volumes. 

$2.50  each. 


APPENDIX   II 


413 


^"^^ Japan  in  History Houghton  Miffin.      $.75 

The  Mikado Princeton  Press.     $1.00 

*  Guedalla Partition  of  Europe  1715-1815 Oxford  Press.     $1.10 

Hannay The  Navy  and  Sea  Power Holt.     $.50 

Harris Intervention    and    Colonization    in 

Africa Houghton  MifHin.  $2.00. 

*  Hart The  Formation  of  the  Union Longmans.     $1.25 

The  War  in  Europe Appleton.      Net,  $1.00 

Hassall The  Making  of  the  British  Empire  .  Scribner.     $.50 

*  Hawkesworth The  Last  Century  in  Europe Longmans.     Net,  $1.40 

*  Hayes British  Social  Politics Ginn.     $1.75 

The  Political  and  Social  History  of 

Modern  Europe Macmillan.  2  vols.  %2.2$ 

each 

*  Hazen Europe  Since  1815 Holt.     $3.00 

Headlam Bismarck  and  the  Foundation  of  the 

German  Empire Putnam.     $1.50 

*  Henderson A  Short  History  of  Germany Macmillan.      Two     vol- 

umes in  one.     $3.50 

Hill Liberty  Documents Longmans.     $2.00 

Hirst Adam  Smith Macmillan.     $.75 

Howard The  Cause  and  Extent  of  the  Recent 

Industrial  Progress  of   Germany .  Houghton  Mifflin.    $1.00 

Howard The  German  Empire Macmillan.     $2.00 

I        Preliminaries  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution   Harper.     Net,  $2.00 

*  Hunter Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples .  Oxford  University  Press. 

$.90 

*  Hunter Socialists  at  Work Macmillan.     $1.50 

I  Accuse.     (Anon.) Geo.  H.  Doran  Company. 

Net,  $1.50 

*  nbert Parliament Holt.     $.50 

Independent IndependentCorporalion, 

N.  Y.     $3.00  per  year 

*  Jane Metternich  to  Bismarck,  1815-1878. Oxford  University  Prws. 

Ii.io 

*  Jeffery * The  New  Europe,  1 789-1889 Houghton  Mifflin.    $2.50 

*  Johnson Age  of  Enlightened  Despot^  1660- 1789.  Macmillan.     $.90 

Johnston The  Colonization  of  Africa Cambridge        Univcrsily 

Press.     $2.50 
The  Opening  Up  of  Africa Holt.     $.50 

*  Johnston French  Revolution Holt.     $1.25 

Napoleon Holt.     $1.25 

Johnston  and  Spencer  Ireland's  Story Houghton  MiflBin.    $1.^ 

Kendall Source  Book  of  English  History Macmillan.     $.80 

Kropotkin Terror  in  Russia Methuen  Co.     Londoo. 

Net,  zs. 


414  ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN   EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

*  Larson Short  History  of  England Holt.     $1.40 

Lee Source  Book  of  English  History ....  Holt.     $2.00 

Library  of  Original  Sources University  Research  Ex- 
tension Company, 
Milwaukee.  10  vol- 
umes.    $70.00 

Lichtenberger  • Germany  and  its  Evolution  in  Mod- 
ern Times Holt.     $2.50 

Literary  Digest Funk  and  Wagnalls  Com- 
pany,    $3.00  per  year 

Longman Frederick  the  Great Longmans.     $1.00 

*  Lowell The  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution. . .  Houghton  Mifflin.    $2.00 

Ludlow The  War  of  American  Independence .  Longmans.     $1.00 

Lyall Rise  of  British  Dominion  in  India .  .  Scribner.     $1.50 

McCarthy A  Short  History  of  Our  Own  Times .  Harper.      Net,  $1.50 

*  Macdonald The  Socialist  Movement Holt.     $.50 

Macy  and  Gannaway .  Comparative  Free  Government Macmillan.     $2.25 

Madelin French  Revolution Putnam.     $2.50,  net. 

*  Mallet The  French  Revolution Scribner.     $1.00 

*  Mathews The  French  Revolution Longmans.      Net,  $1.25 

Miller The  Ottoman  Empire Cambridge  University 

Press.     $2.50 

Morley Voltaire Macmillan.     $1.50 

Walpole Macmillan.     $.75 

Morris The    French    Revolution   and    First         • 

Empire Scribner.     $1.00 

*  Muir School  Atlas  of  Modern  History ....  Holt.     $1.25 

Miiller Political  History  of  Recent  Times . .  American  Book  Com- 
pany.    $2.00 

Miinsterberg The  War  and  America Appleton.      Net,  $1.00 

New  Republic,  The Republic  Pub.  Co.   $4.00 

per  year 

*  Ogg The  Governments  of  Europe Macmillan.     $3.00 

Social    Progress     of     Contemporary 

Europe Macmillan.     $1.50 

Orth Socialism  and  Democracy  in  Europe. Holt.     $1.50 

Outlook The  Outlook   Publishing 

Company.     $3.00    per 
year 

Phillips European  History,  181 5-1899 Houghton  Mifflin.    $1.50 

Plunket The  Fall  of  the  Old  Order,  i763-i8i5.0xford  University  Press. 

$1.10 
Poincare How  France  is  Governed McBride.     $1.50 

*  Priest Germany  since   1740 Ginn.     $1.25 

*  Reinsch Colonial  Government Macmillan.     $1.25 

World  Politics  at  the  end  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century Macmillan.     $1.25 


APPENDIX    II  4,^ 

Review  of  Reviews Review  of  Reviews  Com- 

T>  V  -*  ,,  . .  P*"^'    *3oo  per  ytMT 

KODerts Monarchical  Socialism  in  Germany .  Scribner.     $1.25 

*  Robertson- 

Bartholomew Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.   Oxford  University  Pnm, 

Si. IS 

*  Robinson Readings     in     European     History. 

Volume  II Ginn.     $1.50 

♦Robinson  and  Beard.  .Development  of  Modern  Europe.        Ginn.    2  volumes.     $1.50 

and  $1.60 
Readings     in     Modern      European 

History Ginn.     2  volumes.     I1.40 

and  $1.50 

*  Rose Development   of  the  European  Na- 

tions, 1870-1914 Putnam.     2   vols,  in  one. 

S27S 
Life  of  Napoleon  I Macmillan.       Two     vol- 
umes in  one.     $3.00 

The  Origins  of  the  War Putnam.     $1.00 

Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  Era. Putnam.     $1.10 

Rise  of  Democracy  in  England Stone.     $1.25 

Rousseau fimile Heath.     $.90 

Schmitt England  and  Germany,  1 740-1914 . . .  Princeton  University 

Press.     $2.00 

Schurman  The  Balkan  Wars Princeton  Press.     $1.00 

Seeley The  Expansion  of  England Little,    Brown.      Nei, 

S1.75 

*  Seignobos Contemporary  Civilization Scribner.    $i.a5 

Political   History   of   Europe     since 

1814 Holt.     $3.00 

Sheip  and  Bacon Hand-book  of  the  European  War. .  .Wilson  Company.    $1.00 

*  Shepherd Historical  Atlas Holt.     $2.50 

Latin  America Holt.     $.50 

Simkhovitch Marxism  vs.  Socialism Holt.    $1.50 

Simonds The  Great  War Mitchell  Rennerley.  Two 

vols.    $1.50  eadi 

Sloane The  Balkans Eaton  and  Mftins.  $1.50 

Smith Outlines  of  European  History,  1814- 

1914 Longmans.     $.75 

Smith Student's  History  of  India Oxford  University  Press. 

$.60 

Spargo Socialism Macmillan.    $1.50 

Statesman's  Year-Book.     (PubHshed  Annually) Macmillan.     $3.00 

Stephens Revolutionary  Europe Ris-ingtons   (Macmillan). 

$1.75 
Stillman The  Union  of  Italy Cambridge       University 

Press.    $1.50 


4l6  ESSENTIALS   IN   MODERN   EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Stryienski The  Eighteenth  Century  in  France  .  .Putnam.     Net,  $2.50 

Synge Social  Life  in  England Barnes.     Net,  $1.50 

Thurston Economics    and    Industrial    History 

for  Secondary  Schools Scott,  Foresman.     $1.10 

*  Thwaites The  Colonies Longmans.     $1.25 

*  Tickner Social    and    Industrial    History    of 

England Longmans.      Net,  $1.00 

*  Tower Germany  of  To-day Holt.     $.50 

Toynbee The  Industrial  Revolution Longmans.      Net,  $1.00 

Traill Social  England Putnam.       1 2     volumes. 

*  Tuell  and  Hatch Selected  Readings    in  English    His- 

tory   Ginn.     $1.40 

Van  Bergen Story  of  Russia American     Book     Com- 
pany.    $.65 

Van  Tyne The  American  Revolution Harper.     $2.00 

Wakeman European  History,  1598-1715 Macmillan.     $1.75 

*  Webster General  History  of  Commerce Ginn.     $1.40 

West American  History  and  Government.AUyn  and  Bacon.      $2,00 

Source  Book  in  American  History.  .Allyn  and  Bacon.      $1.50 

White A  Text-book  of  the  War Putnam.     $1.00 

White  and  Notestein  .  Source  Problems  in  English  History .  Harper.     $1.30 
Wilson Clive Macmillan.     ^.^s 


APPENDIX   III 
SYNCHRONOLOGICAL  CHARTS 


4i8 


ESSENTIALS  IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


A  SYNCHRONOLOGICAL   CHART  SHOWING  THE  RULERS  OF 


Charles  II  1660-85 
WlLUAM  III  |~" 

1689-1702         Mary  II    1685-8 
1689-94 

George  I  (Elector  of  Hanover) 
1714-27 


George  IJ 
Frederick  P 


Year 

168s 
1690 
1695 
1700 
1705 
1710 
171S 
1720 
172s 
1730 
I73S 
1740 
1745 
1750 
1755 
1760 
1765 
1770 
1775 
1780 
1785 
1790 
1795 
1800 
1805 
1810 

181S         I 

1820  George  IV 
182s     1820-30 


ENGLAND 


James  II 


FRANCE 

Louis  XIV    1643-1715 

Louis  the  Dauphin 


Anne  I 
1702-14 


1727-1760 
of  Wales 


Louis  D.  of  Burgundy 

I 
Louis  XV    1715-74 


Louis  the  Dauphin 


George  III    1760-1820 


Louis  XVI 
1774-93 


NETHERLANDS      BELGIUM 


1830 
1835 
1840 
1845 
1850 
I8SS 
i860 
1865 
1870 
1875 
1880 
1885 
1890 
1895 
1900 
1905 
1910 
1915 
1916 


Edward  D. 
of  Kent 
William  IV  | 

1830-1837     Victoria 
1837-1901 


William  I    1815-30 
1815-40 


FIRST  REPUBLIC 

National  Convention 

1792-95 

Directory  1795-99  I' 1 

Consulate  1799-1804  Napoleon  I   Louis 
1804-14  I 


Louis  XVIII 
1814-24 
Charles  X 
I  1824-30 

I       Leopold  I 
William  II  1831-65    Loms  Philippe 


1840-49 

William  m 
1849-90 


1830-48 


SECOND  REPUBLIC 

1848-52 
President  Louis  Napoleon 

Bonaparte 
SECOND  EMPIRE 
Napoleon  III    1852-70 


Leopold  II 
1865-1909 


Philip 


Edward  VII 
1901-10 

George  V 
1910- 


WlLHELMINA 
1890- 


Albert  I 

1909- 


THIRD  REPUBLIC  OF  FRANCE 
President    Thiers    187 1 

MacMahon    1873 

Gr6vy    1879 

Car not    1887 

Casimir-Perier    1894 

Faure    1895 

Loubet    1899 

Falliferes    1906 

Poincar6    1913 


APPENDIX    III 
THE  PRINCIPAL  EUROPEAN  STATES  FROM   1688  TO   1916. 


SPAIN 
Charles  II    1665-1700 


Philip  V 
1700-46 


Ferdinand  VI 
1746-59 


Joseph 
1808-14 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

THE  EMPIRE 
Emp.  Leopold  I    1658-1705 


Emp.  Joseph  I 
170S-11 


Emp.  Charles  VI 
1711-40 


Maria  Theresa 
m.    Eicp.  FRANas  I 


1740-80 
1745-1765 


Charles  III 
1759-88 


Charles  IV 
1788-1808 


Emf.  Joseph  II 
1765-90 


Emp.  Leopold  n    x79o-a 

Emp.  Francis  II     1792-1804 
EMPIRE  OF  AUSTRIA    (Emp.  of  Acstua 
1804-1835) 


Ferdinand  VII 
1814-33 


A 


Isabella  II 
1833-68 


Emp.  Ferdinand 

1835-48  I 

I  Eap.  Francis  Joseph  I    Maxdiiuan  |  Cbarks 
1848-1916  Emp.  or  Mexico 


ITALY 
Victor  Emmanuel  II    1861-78 


Amadeo  I    1870-73 

REPUBLIC  OF  SPAIN 
1868-1870,  1873-74 
Alfonso  XII 
1875-85 

Alfonso  XIII 
1886- 


HUMBEST  I      1878-I9OO 


Victor  Emmancu.  m    1900- 


I  Francis  Ferdin&nJ' 
(murdered  191 4) 


Otto] 

Emf.  Okhw  I 


419 


TSM 

1700 
1 70s 
1710 
>7IS 
«7» 
>7as 
I7J0 
I7JS 
t74B 
I74S 
«7S» 

\]& 
I7*S 
1770 

177$ 
1780 

itSs 

I7»» 

>8is 
tSso 

at$ 

itjO 

1X40 
tS4S 

tSso 

t86s 
1870 

t89S 
igoo 
190S 
t«to 


420 


ESSENTIALS   IN  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


A   SYNCHRONOLOGICAL   CHART  SHOWING  THE  RULERS  OF  THE 

PRINCIPAL  EUROPEAN  STATES  FROM   1688 -TO   1916  —  Continued. 

Year  PRUSSIA  RUSSIA  Year 


i68s 
1690 
169s 
1700 
1 70s 
1710 
171S 
1720 
172s 


1730 
I73S 
1740 
1 745 
I7SO 
17SS 

1760 
176s 
1770 
I77S 
1780 
178s 
1790 
1795 
1800 
1805 
1810 
1815 

1830 


ELECTORS  OF  BRANDENBURG 

Frederick  William  1640-88 

(The  I  Great  Elector) 

Frederick  III    1688-1701 

King  of  Prussia    i  701-13 


Ivan  V    1689-96 


Peter  I    1696-1725  m.  Catherine  I 
I  1725-7 


Frederick  William  I 


1713-40   1 

Alexis 

I 
Peter  II 


Frederick  II    1740-86     1 

The  Great       Augustus  William 


Anna 


Catherine 


1685 
1690 
1695 
1700 
1 70s 
1710 
171S 
1720 
172s 


Anna 

I             Anna  I    1730-40  1730 

t'         vt  '^^^ 

Ivan  VI    1740-41  1740 

I  I74S 

Elizabeth  I    1741-62  ^75o 

I7SS 


1762    Peter  III    m.    Catherine  II    1762-96 
The  Great 


Frederick  William  II    1786-97 
Frederick  William  III    1 797-1 840  Paul  I    1 796-1801 


1825 
X830 

183s         I 

1840  Frederick  William  IV    1840-61 

1845 


I 

Alexander  I    1801-25 


GREECE  Nicholas  I    1825-55 

Capo  d'  Istria    President 
Otto  I    1832 


1850 

i8ss 
i860 
1865 
1870 

187s 


1880 
188s 
1890 
1895 
X900 
190s 
X910 
«)iS 
1916 


GERMAN  EMPIRE 

William  I    1861-71 
German  Emperor    1871-188 


George  I    1863-1913 


Frederick  III    1888 
WniiAM  II    1888- 


Alexander  II    1855-81 


Alexander  III    1881-94 


Nicholas  II    1894- 


Constantine  I    1913- 


1760 
1765 
1770 
177S 
1780 
1785 
1790 
179s 
1800 
1805 
1810 
181S 

1820 

1825 
1830 

183s 
1840 
184s 

1850 

185s 
i860 
1865 
1870 

187s 


1880 
i88s 
1890 
189s 
1900 
190s 
1910 
191S 
1916 


INDEX 


Abhorrers,  4 

Absolutism  in  France,  10;  in  Prussia, 
21;  in  1740,  24;  of  enlightened 
despots,   25-28;    of  Napoleon    I, 

175^  . 

Abyssinia,  323 

Acadia,  63,  64,  65 

Act,  Corporation  6,  247;  Enumer- 
ated Articles,  76;  Molasses,  76; 
Navigation,  22,  76;  Act  of  Set- 
tlement, 4;  Test,  5,  247;  Tolera- 
tion, 3;  Sugar,  80;  Stamp,  80; 
Townshend,  81;  Intolerable,  82; 
Union,  246,  385;  Catholic  Eman- 
cipation, 246-47;  Irish  Land,  386; 
Insurance,  397 

Adams,  Samuel,  81 

Admiralty  courts,  77 

Africa,  Portuguese  in,  47;  opening 
by  missionaries  and  explorers,  317, 
ff;  remnants  of  older  colonial  em- 
pires, 318;    exploration  of,  318 

Agriculture,  interest  of  Tories  in,  7; 
early  in  England,  190-92;  im- 
provements in,  192-5 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Treaty  of,   (1748), 

70,  72,  74 
Albania,  317 

Alberoni,  Cardinal,  22-23 
Alexander  I,   of  Russia,  at   Tilsit, 
172,    176;    break  with  Napoleon, 
179;   influence  of,  225,  370;  sup- 
presses Polish  Revolt,  235 
Alexander  II,  of  Russia,  371-72 
Alexander  III,  of  Russia,  373 
Algefiras  Conference    (1906),    303, 

350 
Algeria,  France  in,  317,  318,  321 


Alliance,  The  Grand,  62;  The  Holy, 
225-26;  The  Quadruple,  22O; 
Triple,  363-64,  368 

Alsace-Lorraine,  289 

America,  Portuguese  colonies  in,  57; 
French  and  Indian  Wars,  61; 
War  for  Independence,  76-83, 
(See  United  States,  etc.)  • 

American     Independence, 
War  of,  82-84 

Amiens,  Peace  of,  166 

A  mien  Regime,  defined,  90 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  78 

Angola,  57 

Anne,  of  England,  4,  7,  63,  66 

Anti-Com-Law  League,  253 

Antwerp,  139 

Arbitration,  international,  399 

Arcot,  72 

Argentina,  231 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  197 

Armada,  Spanish,  i 

Army,  under  Louis  XIV,  15;  under 
Peter  the  Great,  19;  under 
Frederick  William,  20;  Prussian 
system,  21;  Prussian  soldier,  68; 
under  Bismarck,  276;  North 
German  Confederation,  279;  WQ- 
liam  II's  interest  in,  369;  (See 
Militarism) 

Amdt,  180 

Art,  French,  12,  15 

Assembly,   of  Notables,    102;    Na- 
tional   104,    106,    no,     1 1 2-13, 
1 16-18,  123-25;  Legislative,  114- 
15,  123  125-26,  130-31 
Assiento,  52,  65-66 
AssigtuUs,  (Asseen-ySt),  113 


421 


422 


INDEX 


Auerstaedt,  battle  of,  171 

Ausgleich  (Austro-Hungarian),  1867, 
280 

Austerlitz,  battle  of,  170 

Australia,  government,  345,  349 

Austria  (See  Austria-Hungary),  influ- 
ence of,  23;  in  Grand  Alliance,  62; 
in  War  of  Spanish  Succession,  63; 
in  War  of  Austrian  Succession, 
66-68;  alliance  with  France,  74;  in 
Seven  Years'  War,  74-75;  war 
with  French  Republic,  127,  135; 
in  Third  Coalition,  169;  revolt 
against  Napoleon,  178;  in  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  182-85;  Indus- 
trial Revolution  in,  215;  situation 
in  1814,  222;  in  Holy  Alliance, 
225;  Revolution  of  1848,  240-44; 
War  with  Sardinia,  267;  rivalry 
for  leadership  with  Prussia,  274; 
Danish  War,  277;  Convention  of 
Gastein,  277;  receives  Holstein, 
278;  war  with  Prussia  278-279; 
humbUng  of,  279 

Austria-Hungary  (See  Austria)  distri- 
bution of  races  in,  223;  restoration 
in,  222;  possessions  in,  1848,  224; 
Ausgleich  of  1867,  280;  govern- 
ment, 280-81;  interests  in  the 
Near  East,  304;  intervention  in 
Turkey,  308 ;  annexation  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  316;  interven- 
tion in  war  between  Serbia  and 
Bulgaria,  314;  attitude  toward 
Turkey,  1908,  316;  interest  in 
Balkans,  350;  extension  of  suf- 
frage, 382;  Compromise  of  1907, 
382 

Austrian  Succession,  War  of,  70 

Azores,  80 


Baden,  279 

Bailly  (Bay-ye)  107,  137 

Baker,  318 

Bakewell,   Robert,    183-94 

"  Balance  of  Power,"  63 


"Balance  of  Trade,"  51 

Balkan  Wars,  316-17 

Bank  of  England,  42,  144 

Bank  of  France,  165 

Banking,  goldsmiths,  42;  South 
Sea  Bubble,  43;  Bank  of  France, 
165;  development  under  Napoleon 
HI,  262;  modern,  301 

Banquets,  political,  237 

Barere,  136 

Barre,  Colonel,  77 

Bastille,  97,  108 

Bavaria,  in  War  of  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, 64;  Austrian  Succession, 
68;  Kingdom,  170;  not  in  North 
German    Confederation,    279 

Bazaine,  Marshal,  286 

Belgium,  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV, 
62;  conquest  by  French  Republic, 
138;  ceded  to  France,  145; 
united  with  Holland,  182;  Revo- 
lution of  1830,  233-34;  in  Africa, 
319-20;  invasion  of  1914,  352 

Bengal,  73 

BerHn,  Congress  of,  310-12,  363; 
Conference  of,  319;  Decree,  176 

Bessemer  process,  201 

Biarritz,  interview  at,  278 

Bill  of  Rights,  3 

Bismarck,  Otto  von,  friend  of  Austria, 
275;  personality,  275;  character 
and  aims,  276;  "Blood  and  Iron," 
276;  struggle  with  legislature, 
276;  plans  humbling  of  Austria, 
277-78;  forestalls  European  in- 
terference, 278;  tricks  Napoleon 
HI,  278,  284;  magnanimous  to 
Austria,  279;  forms  North  Ger- 
man Confederation,  280;  proposes 
Leopold  for  Spanish  Throne,  282; 
interview  at  Ems,  284;  dic- 
tates peace  terms,  287;  inter- 
view with  Napoleon  HI,  288; 
at  proclamation  of  German  Em- 
pire, 288;  triumph  of  policy, 
289-91;  at  Congress  of  Berlin, 
311-12;    aims  and  policies,  360, 


INDEX 


423 


363;  alliances,  363-64;  portrait, 
365;  struggle  with  Church,  367, 
394-95;  struggle  with  Socialists, 
367-68,  396;  protective  policy, 
368;   dismissal  369-70 

"Black  Hole"  of  Calcutta,  73 

Blanc,  Louis,  235,  237,  258-59 

Blast  furnace,  200 

Blucher  (Bleecker),  182 

Board,  of  Agriculture,  193;  of  Trade, 

77 

Bohemia,  241 

Boileau,  15 

Bolivar,  General  Simon,  228 

Bolivia,  228 

Bombay,  60,  69 

Bonaparte  (See  Napoleon) 

Bonaparte,    Joseph,    170,   177 

Bonaparte,  Louis,  170 
'        Boston,  83 

Boulangism,  380 

Bourbon  family,  compact  of  1733, 
66;  abdication  of  Spanish,  177; 
restoration  in  Spain  and  Naples, 
221-22 

Bourgeois  Monarchy  236,   258 

Bourgeoisie,  (Boor-zhwa-zee),  14 

Boxer  Rebellion,  338-39 

Braddock,  General,  72 

Brandenburg,  20,  74  (See  Prussia) 

Brazil,  57,    176 

Breda,  Declaration  of,  2 

Brindley,  James,  203 

Brook  Farm  Colony,  214 

Brunswick,  Declaration  of,  128 

Buelow,  Bernhard,  (Prince)  von,  370 

Bulgaria,  division,  312;  union  with 
Roumelia,  314;  accession  of  Fer- 
dinand I,  314;  independence, 
316;  alliance  wdth  Turkey,  317; 
part  in  Balkan  Wars,  316-17 

Bundesrath,  279,  366 

Burgoyne,  General,  83 

Burschenschaft,  180,  229-30 

Byron,  Lord,  306 

Cabal,  3 


Cabinet  (British),  3,  5,  7,  8,  79 

Cahiers  (Ca-yS)  103 

Calcutta,  60,  72-73 

Calonne  (Cai6n),  101-02 

Campo  Formio,  Treaty  of,  154-56 

Canada,  Count  Frontenac  in,  63; 
in  Austrian  Succession  War,  69; 
capture  of  Louisbourg,  70;  in 
Treaty  of  Paris,  75;  American  in- 
vasion, 83;  government,  346,  348 

Canals,  298-99 

Canning,  George,  230 

Cape  Breton  Island,  70,  75 

Cape  Colony,  318 

Capitalism,  38,  194-95,  208-09 

Carbonari,  242 

Carlsbad   Decrees   (18 19),    230 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  399-400 

Carnot,  136-138 

Cartwright,     Edmund,     197 

Casement,  Sir  Roger,  388 

Catherine  II  (The  Great)  of  Russia, 
27-28,  123 

Cavaignac,  General,  259 

Cavour,  Count,  portrait,  265;  per- 
sonality, 266;  poUcy,  266;  at  Paris, 
266;  at  Plombi^res,  266;  outwits 
Austria,  267;  supports  Garibaldi, 
268;   Church  policy,  394 

Ceylon,  184 

Champ  de  Mars  (Sham  dtt  Mar), 
Massacre  of,  122 

Charles  Albert,  of  Sardinia,  243, 
244,  266 

Charles,  Archduke  of  Austria,  62,  64 

Charles  Edward,  The  Pretender, 
68 

Charles  I,  of  England,  2 

Charles  II,  of  England,  2,  4,  6,  8, 
22,  60 

Charles  II,  of  Spain,  62 

Charles  IV,  of  Sf>ain,  174 

Charles   \T,   Emf)eror,   67 

Charles  X,  of  France,  231-32 

Charles  XII,  of  Sweden,  19 

Charters,  colonial,  77 

Chartism,  252-53 


424 


INDEX 


Child  Labor,  210-11 

China,  Portuguese  in,  47;  missions 
in  302;  attitude  toward  West, 
326;  Russian  aggressions,  328;  size 
and  characteristics,  333-34;  in- 
fluence of  West.  335;  early  re- 
lations with  Europe,  334-36; 
interest  in'  Korea,  332-333;  Boxer 
Rebellion,  338-39;  influence  of 
Li  Hung  Chang,  336-37;  Re- 
public,  341;    Japanese    demands, 

342-43 

Church  and  State,  in  France  under 
Louis  XIV,  3-4,  12,  15;  lands 
confiscated,  113;  reoganization, 
116-17;  Concordat,  1801,  163; 
Inquisition  in  Spain  abolished  by 
Napoleon,  178;  hostihty  to  govern- 
ment of  Italy,  270-73;  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  361;  struggle 
with  Bismarck,  367;  in  Ireland, 
385;  disestabhshment  in  Wales, 
393;  relations  with  Prussia,  394- 
95;  in  Spain,  395 

Cisalpine  Republic,  166 

Clarendon,  Earl  of,  3 

Clarkson,  250 

''Clermont,"  The,  204 

CUnton,  De  Witt,  206 

CUpper  ship,  205 

Clive,  Robert,  35,  68,  72-74 

Coalitions,  against  France,  First, 
139-40,  145;  Second,  166;  Third, 
169;  Fourth,  171 

Coblentz,  French  occupation  of, 
138 

Coke  of  Holkham,  194 

Colbert,  13,  52,  66 

Cologne,  occupation  of,  138 

Colombia,  228 

Colonies,  toleration  in  American, 
4;  Portuguese,  57;  English,  58; 
French,  58-59;  loss  of  French, 
75;  government,  345,  349;  in 
1914,  346,  347,  348;  kinds,  345; 
•wars  in,  61;  development  af- 
fected by  wars,  63;    situation  in 


1 713,  66;  French  empire  in  India, 
69;  French  colonial  empire,  71; 
policy  of  England,  75-85;  charters, 
77;  policy  of  Napoleon,  165; 
colonial  empire  of  England,  85; 
changes  made  by  Congress  of 
Vienna,  185;  in  Africa,  318-19 

Commerce,  domestic,  38-40;  market, 
39;  restrictions  on,  39,  77;  fairs, 
39-41;  routes,  40742;  dangers, 
41-42;  Portuguese,  47-48;  Span- 
ish, 48-49;  Dutch,  49-50;  Mer- 
cantile System,  50-51;  slaves,  57; 
Board  of  Trade,  77,  (See  Trading 
Company);  Expansion  in  eigh- 
teenth century,  6-7,  24,  32-35; 
restrictions  in  France,  84-95;  Na- 
poleon's blockade  of,  176-77;  since 
1870,  300 

Committee  of  Public  Safety,  135- 
36 

Committees  of  Correspondence,  82 

Common  Sense,  83 

Commons,  House  of,  5-6  (See  Par- 
liament) 

Conmiunists,  214,  377-79 

Communist  Manifesto,  362 

Compromise  of  1907,  382 

"Concert  of  Europe,"  226,  231 

Concordat  of  1801,  163,  393 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  170; 
German,  183-84,  222,  278;  North 
German  Confederation,  278-80 

Confucius,  334 

Congo  Free  State,  319-20 

Congress,  Stamp  Act,  80;  First 
Continental,  82;  Second  Conti- 
nental 83;  Erfurt,  179;  Vienna, 
181-85,  219,  242,  250,  262;  Carls- 
bad, 230;  Laibach,  230;  Verona, 
230;  Berlin,  363 

Conservatives,  250 

Constant,  Baron,  399-400. 

Constitution,  French,  1791,  1 13-15; 
First  French  Republic,  135;  Con- 
sulate, 161;  Directory,  144;  North 
German  Confederation,  279;  Aus- 


INDEX 


423 


tria-Hungary,  280-81;  (See  Gov- 
ernment) 

Consulate,  160-61 

**  Continental  System,"  176,  179 

Convention,  National,  calling  of, 
129;  meeting  of,  131;  trial  of 
Louis  XVI,  132;  war  with  Europe, 
134;  war  policy,  138-39;  Consti- 
tution of  Year  III,  144;  adjourn- 
ment and  services,  144-45 

Cordeliers  (Cor-del-ya)  Club,  125 

Corn  Laws  (English),  212,  224,  252 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  84 

Corporation  Act,  6,  247 

Corvee  (Cor-va),  93,  100 

Costumes,    1814-24,    245;    1834-64, 

257 
Cotton  gin,  198,  200 
Cotton  manufacture,  198-99,  200 
Coureurs  de  hois  (Coorier  day  bwa), 

SO 

Craft  guilds,  32,  33 

Crete,  316 

Crimean  War,  262,  264 

Criminal  law,  in  France,  97;  in  Eng- 
land, 247 

Cromer,  Lord,  321 

Crompton,  Samuel,  198 

Customs  duties,  in  France,  94-95 

Custozza,  battles  of,  243-44,  270,  279 

Czechs,  revolt  in  1848,  241 

Danby,  Earl  of,  3 

Danton,  125,  129,  132,  140,  142 

Darby,  200 

Darwin,  Charles,  398 

"Daughters  of  Liberty,"  81 

Decembrists,  371 

Declaration  of  Breda,  2;  of  Bruns- 
wick, 128;  of  Indulgence,  4;  of 
Pillnitz,  123;  of  Rights  of  Man, 
113-14 

Defoe,  38 

Denmark,  enlightened  despotism  in, 
27;  deprived  of  Norway,  184;  war 
with  Prussia  and  Austria,  277; 
loss  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  277 


Deputies  on  Mission,  136 

Despotism,  Benevolent  or  Enlight- 
ened, 26-28;  Napoleon  I,  176 

Dettingen,  battle  of,  68 

Diderot  (De-der-6),  25 

Directory,  formation,  144;  weakness, 
149,  160;  X,  Y,  Z.  affair,  160; 
overthrow,  160 

Dispensing  power,  3 

Disraeli,  Benjamin,  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field,  383-85 

"Domestic  System"  in  industry, 
36,  195-196 

Dom  Pedro  I,  Emperor  of  Brazil, 
229 

Dreyfus  case,  380-81 

Duma,  Russian,  374-76 

Dumouriez  (Doo-moo-r€-ya),  131, 
134 

Dupleix,  68,  69,  72-73 

Dutch,  explorers,  21;  gains  from 
Portugal,  57;  trading  operations, 
21-22,  58,  331;  War  of  Spanish 
Succession,  63;  in  Africa,  318; 
colonial  policy,  348 

East  India  Company,  English,  46, 
60,72 

Economics,  24,  53,  99 

Ecuador,  228 

Edict  of  Nantes,  12 

Education,  beginnings  in  England, 
251;  problems  of,  362;  in  Russia, 
372;  spread  in  Europe,  395 

Egypt,  Napoleon  in,  158-59;  rule 
of  Mehemet  Ali  307-08;  occupa- 
tion by  England,  318-19;  with- 
drawal of  France,  320;  control  of, 

345 
Elba,  Napoleon  at,  181 
Elizabeth,  of  England,  46 
Elizabeth,  of  Russia,  75 
Emigration,  301 

Emigres  (A-mfi-gra),  Sec  Nobility 
Entile,  25 
Empire,  (See  Holy  Roman  Empire; 

France;  etc.) 


426 


INDEX 


Ems  Dispatch,  284 

Enclosures,  190-91,  194 

Encyclopedia^  25 

England,  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 23;  wars  with  Spain 
and  France,  67-68;  colonies  in 
America,  58-59;  trading  opera- 
tions, 52,  57;  and  French  Revolu- 
tion, 139;  and  Napoleon,  157-58, 
167,  176;  at  Congress  of  Vienna, 
182-85;  Industrial  Revolution, 
195-214;  in  the  Quadruple  Al- 
liance, 226;  after  Waterloo,  245- 
46;  factory  legislation,  250;  Re- 
form Bill  of,  1832,  247-50;  Reign 
of  Victoria,  252;  cession  Ionian 
Isles  to  Greece,  315;  interests  in 
the  Near  East,  305;  Crimean 
War,  262-64,  308-10;  interven- 
tion in  Greece,  306-07;  interven- 
tion in  Turkey,  308;  Reform 
Bills  of  1867  and  1884,  383-84; 
in  Africa,  318,  320-21,  324-25, 
349,  350;  in  China,  337-38,  334- 
35;  alliance  with  Japan,  339; 
colonial  possessions  in  1914,  346; 
War  of  1914,  352;  woman  suf- 
frage, 384;  Workingmen's  Com- 
pensation, 396;  old  age  pensions, 
396-97;  agriculture  in,  190-95 

"Enlightened  Despots,"  25-28,  53 

Erfurt,  Congress  of,  1 79 

Estates-General,  (See  States  General) 

Eugenie,  Empress,  284 

Exclusion  Bill,  4 

Explorers,  in  Africa,  318 

Eylau,  battle  of,  171 

Fabianism,  214 

Factory  System,  206-09;  legislation 

in  England,  250-51 
Fairs,  39-41,  45 
Fashoda  incident,  349-50 
Fenians,  385 

Ferdinand  I  of  Bulgaria,  314-15 
Ferdinand  I  of  Naples,  244 
Ferdinand  II  of  Naples,  267 


Ferdinand  VII  of  Spain,  228 

Feudalism  in  France,  91-92,  95, 
iio-ii;  in  Japan,  331-32 

Feuillants,  (Fu-yan),  125,  127 

Finland,  184 

Fitch,  John,  204 

Florida,  75,  84 

Fourier,  Charles,  214 

France,  Huguenot  Wars,  i;  in  1740, 
23;  manufacturing,  in,  52;  colo- 
nial empire.  71;  under  Louis  XIV, 
6-18,  62-65;  in  War  of  Austrian 
Succession,  67-68;  in  French  and 
Indian  Wars,  70-71;  alUance  with 
United  States,  84;  class  distinc- 
tions, 90-91;  Revolution  in,  90- 
148;  under  Napoleon,  149-182;  at 
Congress  of  Vienna,  183;  Indus- 
trial Revolution  in,  215,  235;' 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII,  220- 
21;  reign  of  Louis  XVIII,  231; 
reign  of  Charles  X,  231-32,  258- 
59;  Revolution  of  1830,  231-34; 
Revolution  of  1848,  235-37; 
Second  RepubHc,  2^0;  Second 
Empire,  261;  gains  Nice  and 
Savoy,  266-67;  France  and  Prus- 
sia, 282-84,  288;  under  Third 
Republic,  237,  286,  288,  376-78; 
in  the  Near  East,  305-06;  m 
Africa,  318,  320,  322-23;  in  Far 
East,  335-36,  338;  colonial  pos- 
sessions in  1914,  347;  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State,  393,* 
Socialism,    395; 

Francis  I,  Emperor,  185 

Francis  Joseph  of  Austria-Hungary, 
241,  280 

Franco-German  War,  282-90 

Frankfort  Assembly,  238-39 

Frederick  William  I  of  Prussia,  20 

Frederick  II  (the  Great),  27,  66-67, 

70,  74-75 
Frederick   William  III   of  Prussia, 

171-72 
Frederick  William    IV    of  Prussia, 

238-40 


INDEX 


427 


Free  Trade,  212-13,  252-53,  361 
French  and  Indian  Wars,  71-72 
Friedland,  battle  of,  172-73 
Fulton,  Robert,  204 

Gabelle,  94  • 

Gambetta,  289 

Garibaldi,  267-68,  271 

Gastein,  Convention  of,  277 

George  I,  of  England,  5,  7,  66 

George  II,  of  England,  75 

George  III,  of  England,  79,  81, 
84-85,  195 

Germany,  reorganized  by  Napoleon, 
170,  172;  reawakening  of,  180; 
reconstructed  by  Congress  of 
Vienna,  182;  formation  of  German 
Confederation,  183-84,  222;  In- 
dustrial Revolution  215;  unrest 
in,  229;  Revolution  of  1848,  237- 
40;  Assembly  of  Frankfort,  238- 
39;  Zollverein,  274;  North  German 
Confederation,  279-80;  alliance  of 
all  German  states,  281;  unifica- 
tion, 290;  proclamation  of  Em- 
pire, 288-91;  in  the  Near  East, 
316;  in  Africa,  323-24,  350;  colo- 
nial poUcy,  349;  colonial  posses- 
sions in  1914,  347;  in  China, 
337-38,  342;  government,  364, 
366-67;  under  William  It,  368- 
70;  future  of  370;  socialism,  395- 
96;  opposition  at  Hague,  399 

Gibraltar,  65 

Girondists  (Ji-r6n-dists),  origin,  125; 
leaders,  126;  policies,  127,  130, 
138;  struggle  with  Mountain,  132; 
overthrow,  134 

Gladstone,  384-86 

Goa,  57 

Gobelins,  13 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  40 

Gordon,  "Chinese,"  321 

"Great  War"   of    1914,  5^7,  349" 

53 
Greece,     uprising     of     1820,    229; 
struggle  for  independence,  305-07; 


gains  Thessaly,  315;  gains  Ionian 
Isles,  315;  gains  Crete,  316;  rule 
of  George  I,  315;  rule  of  Otho, 
314-15;  part  in  Balkan  Ware, 
316-17;  war  with  Bulgaria,  317 

Grenville,  80 

Grey,  Earl,  247,  250 

Guiana,  British,  184 

Guilds,  32-36,  235 

Guizot,  236 

Habeas  Corpus  Act,  225 

Hague  Peace  Conferences,  226,  399 

Hanover,  Electress  of,  4;  Elector 
of,  66;  annexed  to  Prussia,  170; 
taken  from  Prussia,  172;  opposes 
Prussia,  1866,  278;  reannexed  to 
Prussia,  279 

Hapsburg  Family,  Maria  Theresa, 
67;  dominions  in  1848,  240-41; 
hereditary  title  to  throne  of  Dual 
Monarchy,  280 

Hargreaves,  James,  197 

Hayti,  165 

H6bert  (a-bar),  140-42 

Helvetic  Republic,  166 

Henry  IV  of  France,  i,  8 

Hohenlinden,  battle  of,  166 

Holland,  colonial  expansion,  3,  18, 
21-22,  49-50;  relations  with 
French  Republic,  145;  Batavian 
Republic,  166;  kingdom,  170; 
united  with  Belgium,  182;  colo- 
nial possessions,  348  (See  Dutch) 

Holstein,  278 

Holy  Alliance,  formation,  225-26; 
opposition  to,  230,  306;  end  of,  244 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  i,  2,  2$,  170 

Hongkong,  57,  335 

Howard,  John,  248 

Hudson  Bay,  65 

Huguenots,  12 

Hungary,  Revolution  of  1848,  241; 
Magyar  influence  in,  281;  exten- 
sion of  suffrage,  382  (See  Austria- 
Hungar>') 

Huskisson,  William,  212 


428 


INDEX 


Ibrahim,  Pasha,  306 

Imperialism,  302 

India,  in  eighteenth  century,  59-62; 
situation  in  1748,  68-70;  Clive 
in,  68-69;  Sepoy  Mutiny,  329-30; 
control  of  345 

Indians,  American,  63 

Indulgence,  Declaration  of,  4 

Industrial  Revolution,  in  England, 
195-216;  effects,  209-216,  359-60; 
on  the  continent,  215-16;  in 
France,  235-36;  in  Japan,  332;  in 
Russia,  372-73 

Industry,  domestic  system,  195-96; 
under  Napoleon  III,  261-62;  since 
1870,  300-01 

Inquisition,  178 

Insurance  (Workingmen's) ,  in  Ger- 
many, 367;   in  England,  397 

Intendants,  95 

Interlopers,  46 

Intervention,  doctrine  of,  226,  229- 
231,  244 

Ionian  Islands,  184 

Ireland,  Union  with  England,  246, 
385;  CathoHc  Emancipation,  246; 
famine  in,  252;  Home  Rule  agita- 
tion, 386,  388;  Church  in,  385; 
Land  Act,  386;  conditions  in  1870, 
384-85 ;  Sinn  Fein  insurrection,  388 

Iron  industry,  199;  charcoal  smelt- 
ing, 199;  blast  furnace,  200; 
steel,  200;  Bessemer  and  Sie- 
mens-Martin  processes,    201 

Ismail,  of  Egypt,  320 

Italy,  Napoleon's  first  campaign, 
154-56;  second  campaign,  166; 
Kingdom  of  Naples,  166;  reconsti- 
tuted at  Congress  of  Vienna,  183- 
84;  Italy  in  1815,  242,  269;  upris- 
ings of  1820,  229;  Revolution  of 
1830,  234;  revolts  in  1848,  242; 
Carbonari  and  Young  Italy,  242; 
completion  of  unity,  265-76;  prob- 
lems of  modern,  273,  360,  382, 
396;  alHance  with  Prussia,  268, 
270;   Church  and  State,  394;  war 


with  Turkey,  316;  government  of, 
273;  in  Africa,  302,  323;  abandons 
Triple   AlUance   303;    in  war  of 
1914,  352 
Iturbide,  228-29 

Jacobins  (J3,ko-b!n)   123-24,  127-28 

James   II    of    England,    3,    62,    78 

Japan,  attitude  toward  West,  326; 
early  government,,  331;  revo- 
lution, 332;  Industrial  Revolu- 
tion, 216;  Chino- Japanese  War, 
337;  Russo-Japanese  War,  339- 
40;  War  of  1914,  341-42;  de- 
mands on  China,  342-43;  posi- 
tion in  P'ar  East,  343-44;  present 
government,  332 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  83 

Jemappes  (Zhe-m§,p),  battle  of,  135 

Jena,  battle  of,  171 

Jews,  3 

Joseph  II,  Emperor,  23,  26,  27 

Josephine,  marriage  with  Napoleon, 
154;  divorce,  179 

"July  Ordinances,"  232 

"July  Revolution,"  231-34 

Junto,  Whig,  4 

Kay,  John,  198 

Kiao-chau,  338,  342 

"King's  Friends,"  79 

KipHng,  Rudyard,  27 

Kitchener,  Lord,  321 

Korea,  rivalry  over,  332-33;  war 
between  China  and  Japan,  336- 
37;  annexation  by  Japan,  340 

Kossuth,  Louis,  240 

Kotzebue,  229 

Kulturkampf,  395 

La   Fayette,   Commander  National 

Guard,  107;  at  Versailles,  111-12; 

desertion,  130;    in  Revolution  of 

1830,  232 
La  Fontaine,  15 
Laissez-faire  (Lay-say-fair),  theory, 

99,  212-13 


INDEX 


429 


Lamartine,  257 

Large  scale  production,  208 

Law,  John,  44 

Laws,  labor,  213,  215,  252 

Le  Brun,  15 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  83 

Legion  of  Honor,  164    . 

Legislative  Assembly,  creation,  114- 
15;  meeting,  123,  125;  parlies  in, 
125-26,  responsibility  for  Sep- 
tember Massacres,  130;  adjourn- 
ment, 131 

"Legitimacy,"  219 

Leipsic,  battle  of,  181 

Leo  Xin,  Pope,  394,  395 

Leopold  I,  Emperor  of  Austria, 
117,  123,   233 

Leopold  II,  of  Belgium,  319-20 

Lettres-de-cachet      (L6t-r-du-ka-sha) , 

97 

Li  Hung  Chang,  336-37 

Liberation,  War  of,  180-81 

Lissa,  battle  of,  279 

Literature  under  Louis  XIV,  15 

Livingstone,  David,  302,  318-19 

Lloyd  George,  David,  388-89,  397, 

Locke,  John,  24 

Locomotive,  205-08 

Lombardy,  in  Revolution  of  1848, 
241;  united  to  Sardinia,  267 

Longwy,  battle  of,  130 

Lords,  House  of,  opposes  Reform 
Bill  of  1832,  249-50  (See  Parli- 
ament, English) 

Lorrain,  Claude,  15 

Louis  XIV,  of  France,  1,8-9;  do"™" 
inates  his  age,  18;  residence,  10- 
11;  system  of  government  10-12; 
Church  under  12;  at  the  Gobe- 
lins, 13;  army,  15;  patronage  of 
art  and  literature,  15,  24;  de- 
signs on  Spain,  22;  colonies,  59; 
rivaby  with  England,  62-65; 
death,  66;  expenditures,  93 

Louis  XV  of  France,  accession  66; 
expenditures,  92-93;  misgovem- 
ment,  98-99;  death,  66 


Louis  XVI  of  France,  character, 
99-100;  collects  tnxjjw,  103;  be- 
fore National  Assembly,  106;  dis- 
trust of,  m;  removes  to  Paris, 
112;  flight  to  Varennes,  117,  122; 
vetoes,  127-28;  flight  to  the  As- 
sembly, 129;  suspension  of,  129; 
deposition,  131;  trial,  132;  execu- 
tion, 134 

Louis  XVIII  of  France,  i8i-«2,  221 

Louis  Napoleon  (See  Napoleon  III) 

Louis  Philippe,  accession,  232-33; 
policy,  232-33,  326;  n^otiates 
return  of  Napoleon's  body,  234, 
257;  acquisition  of  Algeria,  321; 
overthrow,  236;  exile,  241 

Louisburg,  70,  72 

Louisiana,  75,  165,  174 

Louvois  (Lu-vwa),  15 

Lun6ville,  Peace  of,  166 

Macadam,  John,  203 

Macao,  57 

Macaulay,  Lord,  15 

MacMahon,  Marshal,  286 

Madagascar,  323 

Madeira,  80 

Madras,  68,  72 

Magenta,  battle  of,  267,  285 

Magyars  (See  Hungar>) 

Mahdi,  321 

Malplaquet  (Mal-plack-ay),  battk 
of,  64 

Malta,  184 

Manchester  massacre,  224-25 

Manchuria  337-38.  339-4©,  344 

Manorial  system,  190-91 

Mansard,  15 

Manufacturing  of  textiles  in 
England,  206-9;  revolution  of 
eighteenth  centur>',  196  (Sec  In- 
dustr>';   Factory  S>'stem;  etc.) 

Marat  (Ma-ra),  124, 130, 132 

Marengo,  battle  of,  166 

Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  23,  67,  70 

Marie  .\ntoinette  (Maree-Antwinet), 
100,  122,  137 


430 


INDEX 


Marlborough,  Duke  of,  63,  64 

Marseillaise   (Mar-s%yaz),    129 

Marx,  Karl,  362 

Mary  II  of  England,  3-4,  7, 

Massacre,  Boston,  81;  Champ  de 
Mars,  122;  September,  129,  130; 
Manchester,  224 

Maximilian  of  Mexico,  281-82 

"Maximum,  Law  of,"  136,  144 

"May  Laws,"  394-95 

Mazarin  (MazSran),  Cardinal,  i,  8, 
19,  66 

Mazzini,  242,  265 

Mehemet  AU,  306-08 

Mercantilism,  50,  53,  85,  212 

Methuen  Treaty,  52,  65 

Metric  system,  145 

Metternich,  Prince,  at  Congress  of 
Vienna,  185;  character  and  aims, 
219;  portrait,  220;  and  the  Holy 
Alliance,  225;  formation  of  Quad- 
ruple Alliance,  226;  Carlsbad 
meeting,  230;   overthrow,  240-41 

Metz,  286,  289 

Mexico,  228,  281 

Milan  Decree,  176 

Militarism,  360-61 

Minorca,  65,  75,  84 

Mirabeau,  106,  124,  117 

Missionaries,  301-02,  318 

"Mississippi  Bubble,"  44 

Modena,  267 

Moli^re  (Mo-lee-air),  15 

Moltke,  Hellmuth  von,  279,  284-85, 
288 

Monopolies,  in  England,  34-35 

Monroe  Doctrine,  origin  230-31;  in 
Asia,  343-44 

Montcalm,  General,  72 

Montenegro,  independence  of,  312; 
part  in  Balkan  Wars,  316-17 

Montesquieu  (Mon-tes-kew),  2 

Moscow,  18,  46;  campaign,  179;  re- 
treat from,  180 

"Mountain,"  The,  origin,  125-26; 
policy,  132;  struggle  with  Giron- 
dists, 134 


Mukden,  battle  of,  340 

Naples,  Kingdom  of,  under  Napo- 
leon, 166,  170;  restoration  of 
Bourbons,  221-22;  uprising  in, 
229-30;  Revolution  of  1848,  244; 
conquered  by  Garibaldi,  268; 
annexed  to  Italy,  268 

Napoleon  I,  Emperor  of  French, 
early  life,  150;  portrait,  151, 
155;  characteristics,  150-51;  edu- 
cation, 152;  services  to  Conven- 
tion, 144,  152;  at  Toulon,  152; 
marriage  with  Josephine,  154; 
appointment  to  army  of  Italy, 
154;  Egyptian  campaign,  157; 
invasion  of  Syria,  159;  Coup- 
d'etat,  160-61;  First  Consul,  162; 
Emperor,  162,  168-69;  rela- 
tions with  the  Pope,  163;  ad- 
ministrative reforms,  163-64; 
codification  of  law,  164;  colonial 
policy,  165;  financial  measures, 
165;  Second  ItaHan  Campaign, 
166;  at  Boulogne,  167;  Con- 
sul for  Life,  168;  extension  of 
power  over  central  Europe,  168; 
plots  against,  168;  crushes  Aus- 
tria, 170;  defeats  Fourth  Coali- 
tion, 171;  power  at  its  height, 
171;  at  Tilsit,  172;  designs  on 
Spain,  174;  attitude  of  French 
to,  174-75;  absolutism,  175-76; 
relations  with  Europe,  175;  na- 
tionalist reaction  against,  176; 
Berlin  Decree,  176;  Milan  De- 
cree, 176;  influence  on  United 
States,  176;  campaigns  in  Spain 
and  Portugal,  177-78;  divorce 
and  remarriage,  179;  Russian 
campaign,  180;  in  War  of  Libera- 
tion, 180;  first  abdication,  181; 
at  Elba,  181;  the  Hundred  Days, 
181;  defeat  and  exile,  182;  inter- 
est in  industry,  235;  "Napoleonic 
Legend,"  257 

Napoleon  II,  179 


INDEX 


431 


Napoleon  III,  Emperor  of  French, 
character  and  aims,  256;  elected 
President,  259;  imitation  of  Na- 
poleon I,  259-60;  personality, 
260;  formation  of  Second  Em- 
pire, 260-61;  Coup-d'Stat,  261; 
policy,  261;  encouragement  of 
industry,  261-62;  foreign  policy, 
262;  enters  Crimean  War,  262-63, 
308-10;  receives  Siamese  Min- 
isters, 263;  presides  over  peace 
congress  at  Paris,  264;  at  Plombi- 
^res,  266;  ends  Sardinian  War, 
267;  opposes  final  unification  of 
Italy,  268-70;  tricked  by  Bis- 
marck, 278,  284;  schemes  in 
Mexico,  281-82;  interest  in  Indo- 
China,  336;  part  in  Austro-Prus- 
sian  War,  281;  defeat  at  Sedan, 
286;  interview  with  Bismarck, 
287;   exile,  287 

Nassau,  annexed  to  Prussia,  279 

National  Assembly,  proclaimed,  104; 
forms  Constitutional  Convention, 
104;  Abolition  of  Privilege,  no; 
removal  to  Paris,  11 2-13;  parties 
in,  123-25;  issue  of  assignats,  113; 
Civil  Constitution  of  Clergy,  116- 
17;   adjournment,  118 

National  Guard,  formation,  107;  at 
Versailles,  no;  Massacre  on 
Champ  de  Mars,  122 

"National  Work  Shops,"  237,  258- 

59 
Nationality,  principle  of,  227,  244, 

280 
Navarino,  battle  of,  306 
Navigation  Acts,  22 
Near   East,  question  of,  262,  264- 

65,  304 

Necker,  appointment,  104;  recall, 
103;   dismissal,  107 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Lord,  battle  of 
Nile,  158;  portrait,  168;  Trafal- 
gar, 167-68 

Neutrality,  the  Armed,  84 

New  Netherland,  22 


New  Zealand,  345,  349 
Newcomen,  Thomas,  202 
Newfoundland,  65 
Nicholas  I  of  Russia,  relations  with 

Turkey,  308-09;  policy,  371 
Nicholas  II  of  Russia,  374-75,  399 
Nihilism,  372 
Nile,  battle  of,  158 
Non-intercourse  agreements,  81 
Norway,  united  with  Sweden,  184; 

separated     from     Sweden,    383; 

woman  suffrage  in,  383 
Nova  Scotia,  63,  75 
Novara,  battle  of,  244 

"Oath  of  the  Tennis  Court,"  105 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  246-47 

"October  Manifesto,"  374 

Ohio  Company,  70 

Okuma,  Count,  343-44 

Opium  War,  334-3S 

Orange  River  Free  State,  318 

"Orders  in  Council,"  176 

Oswego,  72 

Ottoman  Empire,  formation,  303; 
in  1 81 5,  304;  war  with  Eg>pt, 
307-08;  Young  Turk  movement, 
315-16;  war  with  Balkan  League, 
316-17;    alliance    with   Bulgaria, 

317 
Owen,  Robert,  214 
Oyama,  Marshal,  341 

Paine,  Thomas,  83 

Palatinate,  War  of  the,  62-63 

Palmerston,  Lord,  277 

Panama,  65-66 

Panama  Canal,  298,  380,  398 

Pan-Slavism,  304,  350 

Papal  Guarantees,  Law  of,  394 

Papal  States,  243,  267-68 

Paris,  influence  on  French  Re\'oIu- 
tion,  107-08,  III,  113;  changes 
in  government,  107,  129;  siege 
of,  287,  289;  Treaty  of  1763,  75; 
Treaty  of  1783,  84;  Treaty  o£ 
1856,  266 


432 


INDEX 


Parlements,  97,  102 

Parliament,  English,  restoration,  2; 
Rump,  2;  power  of,  8;  suspends 
Habeas  Corpus,  225;  Reform  of 
1832,  247-50;  composition  and 
powers,  388-93;    Houses  of,  387 

Parma,  annexed  to  Italy,  267 

PamelJ,  Charles  Stewart,  386 

Parties  in  England,  4;  platforms, 
6;  in  Italy,  273 

Pasteur,  Louis,  398 

Peace,  encouragment  of,  399-400 

Peasants,  in  P'rance,  92-94,  97-98 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  247,  252 

Peninsular  War,  1 78 

Pensions,  in  France,  93;  in  England, 
396-97 

Pepperell,  William,  70 

Perry,  Commodore,  visit  to  Japan, 

331 

Peru,  228 

Peter  I  (the  Great),  of  Russia,  early 
life,  17-18;  reforms,  19;  con- 
quests,  20 

Peter  HI,  of  Russia,  75 

Petrograd  (St.  Petersburg),  19 

Philadelphia,  capture  of,  84 

Philip  II  of  Spain,  i 

Philip  V  of  Spain,  22,  64 

Philosophers,  24 

Phipps,  Sir  William,  63 

Physiocrats,  53,  99 

Pillnitz,  Declaration  of,  123 

Pitt,  William  (Earl  of  Chatham), 
75,  72,  80 

Pitt,  WiUiam  (the  Younger),  es- 
tablishes Board  of  Agriculture, 
193;  war  poUcy,  139;  reforms, 
85;  Act  of  Union,  246;  forms 
Third  Coalition,  170;   death,  170 

Pius  IX,  Pope,  242-43,  267-71 

Pius  X,  Pope,  393,  394 

Plassey,  battle  of,  73 

Plebiscite,  under  Napoleon  I,  162; 
use  by  Napoleon  HI,  261;  in 
Italy,  267-68 

Plombieres,  266 


Pobyedonostsefif,  373 

Poincare,  Raymond,  404 

Poland,  weakness  of,  20;  dismem- 
berment, 123,  146;  reconstituted 
by  Napoleon,  172;  Russian,  179; 
receives  a  constitution,  225; 
Revolution  of  1830,  234-35,  371; 
Russian  policy,  373 

Pondicherry,  68,  74 

Poor  Law,  Enghsh,  251 

Port  Arthur,   337-38,  34© 

Port  Royal,  63-64 

Portugal,  trading  operations,  21, 
46-47,  52,  57;  weakness  of,  21, 
47,  57;  enlightened  despotism,  27; 
Methuen  Treaty,  52,  65;  grants 
Bombay  to  Charles  II,  60;  rela- 
tions with  Napoleon,  171;  flight 
of  royal  family,  177;  revolution 
6f  1820,  229;  in  Africa,  318;  in 
China,  335;  downfall  of  mon- 
archy, 382-83;  Church  and  State, 

395 

Poverty,  increase  under  factory  sys- 
tem, 210;    in  England,  251,  396 

Pragmatic  Sanction,  67 

Prague,  241 

Pressburg,  Treaty  of,  170 

Princeton,  battle  of,  83 

"Prisoner  of  the  Vatican,"  273 

Protection,  in  Russia,  373;  in  Ger- 
many, 368 

Protectorate,  the,  345 

Protestantism,  i,  3,  4,  12 

Prussia  i,  growth  of,  74;  religious 
toleration,  3;  in  Peace  of  Hu- 
bertsburg,  1763,  75;  relations  with 
Louis  XVI,  123;  declaration  of 
war,  128;  victories  in  1793,  135; 
peace  with  France,  145;  gains 
Hanover,  170;  in  Fourth  Coali- 
tion, 171;  reawakening,  180;  re- 
constituted at  Congress  of  Vienna, 
182-85;  ^^  Holy  Alliance,  225;  in 
Carlsbad  Congress,  230;  in  Trop- 
pau,  Laibach  and  Verona  Con- 
gresses, 230;    constitution  of,  238; 


INDEX 


433 


at  Frankfort  Parliament,  239; 
Humiliation  of  Olmiitz,  274;  forms 
2^11verein,  274;  William  I,  275; 
Bismarck,  275;  militarism,  276; 
Danish  War,  277;  Convention  of 
Gastein,  277;  War  with  Austria, 
278-79;  annexations  in  1866,  279; 
joins  North  German  Confeder- 
ation, 279;  aUiance  with  South 
German  States,  281;  prepared- 
ness in  1870,  284;  power  in 
Germany,  364,  366-67,  "The 
May  Laws,"  394-^5  (See  Ger- 
many) 
Public  Safety,  Committee  of,  135-36 

Quartering  Act,  82 
Quebec  Act,  82 

Racine  (Ra-seen),  15 

Railways ,  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester, 205;  construction,  206; 
since  1870,  296-97;  Trans-Si- 
berian, 328,330-31;  Russian,  373 

Ramillies,  battle  of,  64 

Reform  Act,  British  (1832),  247-50; 
(1867),  383;  (1884),  384 

Regulating  Act,  82 

Reichstag,  North  German  Confedera- 
tion, 279;  German  Empire,  366 

"Reign  of  Terror,"  143 

Republics,  First  French,  131,  135; 
Cisalpine,  166;  Helvetic,  166; 
Batavian,  166;  Central  American, 
228;  Mexican,  229;  South  Ameri- 
can, 228;  Second  French,  259; 
Third  French,  289,  376-81;  in 
Spain,  381;  Portuguese,  382-83 

Restoration,  English,  2 

Revolution,  agricultural  in  England, 
194-95;  American,  beginning  of 
8y,  influence  on  France,  113,  126; 
French,  104-46;  of  1820,  227-29; 
of  1830,  227,  231-34;  Revolution 
of  1688,  3,  24,  59;  of  1848,  in 
France,  235-37,  258^-60;  in  Ger- 
many,   237-40,    274;    in  Prussia, 


238;  in  Austria,  240-41;  in  Italy, 
242-44;  in  Naples,  244;  results, 
244-45;  221;  Industrial,  195-216; 
Turkish,  315-16 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  324-25 

Richelieu  (Recsh-lu),  Cardinal,  i,  8, 
19,  66 

"Right  of  Search,"  177 

Road-making,  18th  Century,  40; 
since  1870,  296 

Robespierre,  portrait,  124;  influence, 
132;  in  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  136;  ideas  of,  140-41; 
dictatorship,  142;  overthrow,  143 

Roentgen,  398 

Romagna,  annexed  to  Italy,  267 

Rome,  King  of,  179;  Republic  of 
1848,  243;  annexed  to  Italy,  270 

Romilly,  247 

Roosevelt,   Theodore,   340 

"Rotten  Boroughs,"  249 

Rousseau  (Ru-s5)  25,  99 

Rumania,  origin,  309-10;  indepen- 
dence, 312;  since  1881,  314;  in 
War  of  1914,317,352-53 

Rumelia,  314 

Rump  Parliament,  2 

Russell,  Lord  John,  249 

Russia,  rise  of,  16;  Enlightened 
Despotism  in,  27-28;  in  Sc\'en 
Years'  War,  74;  dismember- 
ment of  Poland,  146;  in  Third 
Coalition,  169;  in  Fourth  Coali- 
tion, 171;  Peace  of  Tilsit,  172; 
Invasion  of,  179-80;  at  Congress 
of  Vienna,  182-85;  in  Holy  Alli- 
ance, 225;  designs  on  Turkey, 
262,  350;  intervention  in  Greece, 
306-07;  Crimean  War,  262-64; 
Russo-Turkish  War,  308-10;  con- 
trol of  Bulgaria,  312;  oppoatkn 
to  Mehemet  AU,  308;  serfdom 
in,  371-72;  railroads,  330-31, 373*. 
Industrial  Revolution,  215-16; 
occupation  of  Siberia,  327;  con- 
quest of  Turkestan,  328;  interests 
in    Far    East,    327-29,    337-3^; 


434 


INDEX 


Russo-Japanese      War,      339-40, 
374;    War  of  1914,  376;    govern- 
ment, 375-76;  future,  376 
Russo-Turkish       War       (1877-78), 
310-11 

Sadowa,  battle  of  270,  279 

Saint  Just  (Sa,n  Zhiist),  136 

St.  Leger,  84 

Saint-Simon  (San-Semon),  214 

San  Stefano,  Treaty  of,  310 

Saratoga,  battle  of,  84 

Sardinia,  gains  in  1748,  70;  revolt 
of  1848,  241,  243;  enters  Crimean 
War,  266;  supported  by  Napo- 
leon III,  266;  gains  in  1859,  267 

Saxony,  made  a  Kingdom,  172 

Scharnhorst,  180 

Schenectady,  63 

Schleswig,  assigned  to  Prussia,  279 

Schleswig-Holstein  Question,  277 

Science,  398 

Sebastopol,  siege  of,  264 

Second  Empire,  establishment,  260; 
faU,  286,  287 

Sedan,  battle  of,  286 

Sepoy,  defined,  60;   Mutiny,  329-30 

September    Massacres,    129-30 

Serbia,  independence,  312;  wars 
with  Bulgaria,  314,  317;  part  in 
Balkan  Wars,  316-17 

Serfdom,  in  France,  97;  abolished 
in  Austria,  Denmark,  Portugal, 
27;  in  Russia,  371-72 

Seven    Weeks'    War,    278-79 

Seven  Years'  War,    74-75 

Sevigne  (Sa-veen-ya),  Madame  de, 

15 
Shipping,  early  204-05;   since  i860, 

297-98 
Shogunate,  331 
Siam,  263 
Siberia,  327-28 
SiciHes,  Two  (See  Naples) 
Sieyes,  (See-ya),  160 
Silesia,  67,  74 
Siraj-ud-daula,  73 


Sinn  Fein  Society,  388 

Six  Acts,  225 

Slavery,  slave  trade,  57;  abolished 
in  EngUsh  colonies,  250 

Smeaton's  blast  furnace,   200 

Smith,  Adam,  53,  85,  212 

Smuggling,  78,  81 

Social  Legislation,  in  Germany,  396; 
in  England,  250-51,  396-99 

Socialism,  growth  in  England,  213; 
theories  of,  213-14;  communists, 
214;  Fabianism,  214;  views  of 
Louis  Blanc,  235-36;  formation 
of  Socialist  Party  in  France,  235- 
36;  influence  in  1848,  258-59; 
Communist  Manifesto,  362;  syn- 
dicahsm,  362-63;  struggle  with 
Bismarck,  367-68;  in  Russia,  373; 
recent  progress,  395-98 

Solferino,  battle  of,  267,  285 

South  Africa,  Union  of,  325 

South  America,  independence,  228- 
29,  231 

"South  Sea  bubble,"  43 

Spain,  early  history,  1-2,  22-23, 
48-49,  52:  alliance  with  France, 
66-67;  domination  of  Portugal, 
57;  trading  operations,  58;  colo- 
nial system,  58,  77;  Family  Com- 
pact, 66;  Napoleon's  designs  on, 
174;  Napoleon's  war  on,  177; 
restoration  of  Bourbons,  221;  loss 
of  American  colonies,  228-29,  231; 
in  Africa,  318;  in  Morocco,  322- 
23;  republic,  381;  adoption  of 
present  constitution,  381;  rela- 
tions between  Church  and  State, 

395 
Spanish  Succession,  War  of,  52,  62; 

Question  of,  282-83 
Speke,  318 
Spice  Islands,  49 
Spinning   jenny,    197;    frame,   197; 

mule,  198 
Stambuloff,  314 
Stamp  Act,  80,  82 
Stamp  Act  Congress,  80 


INDEX 


435 


Stanley,  Henry  M.,  318-19 

States  General,  in  France,  14;  agi- 
tation for,  102;  called,  103 

Steamboat,  204-05,  297-98 

Steam  engine,  201;  Newcomen's, 
201-02;  Watt's,   202,  205-06,  208 

Steel  manufacture,  200-01 

Stein,  Baron  von,  180 

Stephenson,  George,  205-06 

Strassburg,  ceded  to  Germany,  290 

Stock  exchange,  44 

Stuart  Family,  2,  4 

Sudan,  320-21 

Suez  Canal,  262,  298,  320 

Suffrage,  in  eighteenth  century,  6; 
Reform  Bill  of  1832,  247-50;  ex- 
tension in  Austria-Hungary,  382; 
extension  in  Italy,  382;  woman 
suffrage  in  Norway,  383;  in  Eng- 
land, 384,  398 

Sun  Yat  Sen,  341,  343 

Suspects,  Law  of,  136-37 

Siittner,  Baroness  von,  400 

Sweden,  decline  of,  19;  united  with 
Norway,    184;    loss  of    Norway, 

383 
Switzerland,  166 
Syndicalism,  362,  397-98 
Syria,  invasion  by  Napoleon,  158 

TaiUe  (Td-y'),  93^4 

Talleyrand,  182,  185 

Taxation,  in  America,  81;  in  France, 
92-95;  reformed  in  Spain  by 
Napoleon,  178;  in  England,  224 

"Tea  Party,  Boston,"  82 

Telegraph,  299-300 

Telephone,  299 

Telford,  Thomas,  203 

Tennis  Court  Oath,  105 

Terror,  Reign  of  136-37 

Test  Act,  6,  247 

Thessaly,  cession  to  Greece,  315 

Thiers,  257,  288,  290 

Third  Estate,  14,  103 

Third  French  Republic,  290,  376-81, 
393,  395,  397-98 


Three-field  system,  190 

Tientsin,  Treaties  of,  335 

Tilsit,  Treaty  of,  172 

Timor,  57 

Tithe,  95 

Toleration  acts,  3,  4,  5,  12 

Tories,  origin,  4;  policy,  7,  78,  222, 
224-25,    250 

Toulon,  siege  of,  152 

Townshend  Acts,  80-81 

Townshend,  Charles  ("Turnip" 
Townshend),  192-93 

Trade  (See  Commerce) 

Trade   unions,    212-13,    215 

Trading  Company,  regulated,  44; 
joint-stock,  46;  London,  46;  Esst 
India,  46;  South  Sea,  47;  Mis^s- 
sippi,  47;  Dutch  West  India, 
47-49;  Dutch  East  India,  49 

Trafalgar,  battle  of,  168 

Transportation,  conditions  in  eigh- 
teenth century,  203 ;  telford  roads, 
203;  macadam  roads,  203;  bridge 
building,  203;  canals,  203-4; 
steamboat,  204;  ocean,  204-5; 
steam  engine,  205-6;  since  1870, 
295-99;  railroad  building  by  Rus- 
sia, 330-3^ 

Transportation  Act,  82 

Trans-Siberian  Railroad,  328,  330-31 

Transvaal,  318 

Treaties,  Westphalia  (1648),  i,  21; 
Ryswick  (1697),  62,  63;  Methucn, 
(1703),  52,  65;  Utrecht  (i7i3)» 
65;  Assiento  (1713),  62, 65-66, 67; 
ALx-la-Chapelle  (1748),  70,  72,  74; 
Paris  (1763),  75;  Paris  (1783), 
84;  Campo  Formio  (1797),  iS4» 
156;  Luneville  (1801),  166;  Amiens 
(1802),  166;  Pressburg  (1805),  170; 
Tilsit  (1807),  172;  Nanking  (1843), 
335;  Paris  (1856),  264;  Tientsin 
(1858,  i860),  335;  Zurich  (1859), 
267;  V^ersailles  (1871),  289;  Shimo- 
noseki    (1895),  337;    Portsmouth 

(1905),  340 
Trenton,  battle  of,  83 


436 


INDEX 


Triple  Alliance,  363-64,  368 
Triple  Entente,  303 
Tripoli,  annexation  by  Italy,  316 
TuUeries    (Twee-ler-ee),    attack  on, 

128-29 
Tull,  Jethro,  192 
Tunis,  France  in,  302,  318,  322 
Turgot  (Tgrgo),  100-01 
Turin,  268 

Turkestan,  conquest  by  Russia,  328 
Turkey(See  Ottoman  Empire) 
Tuscany,  annexed  to  Italy,  267 
Tzu-hsi,  Empress  of  China,  338-39, 

341 

Ulm,  battle  of,  170 

Ultra  Royalists,  231 

Umbria,  annexed  to  Italy,  268 

Unemployment,  397 

Union,  Act  of  (with  Ireland),  246 

Unions,  Trade  (See  Trade  Unions) 

Unitarians,  3 

United  States  of  America,  Indepen- 
dence of,  83,  84;  affected  by  Napo- 
leon, 176;  Monroe  Doctrine,  231; 
MaximiUan  of  Mexico,  282;  inter- 
vention in  China,  339;  relations 
with  Japan,  331-32;  colonial  pos- 
sessions, 348;  Open  Door  Policy, 

350 
University  of  France,  164 
Utrecht,  peace  of,  65 

Valmy,  131 

Varennes,  flight  to,  117 

Vauban,  15 

Vendue,  insurrection  in,  134, 138 

Venezuela,  228 

Venice  (Venetia) ,  revolution  of  1848, 
241,  243;  annexed  to  Italy,  270, 
278-79 

Verdun,  capture  of,  130 

Versailles,  under  Louis  XIV,  12,  14; 
palace,  91;  court  at  93;  march 
of  women  to,  111-12;  proclama- 
tion of  German  Empire  at,  289 

Victor    Emmanuel    II    of    Sardinia 


(Italy),  accession,  244;  begins 
struggle  for  Italian  unity,  265; 
defeats  Austria,  266;  gains  Na- 
ples, 268;  alliance  with  Prussia, 
268;  monument  to,  270 

Victoria,  of  Great  Britain,  251- 
52;    Empress  of  India,   330 

Vienna,       Congress     of,      181-85; 

Vienna,  Revolution  of  1848,  241 

Vladivostock,  328 

Voltaire,  25 

Voting,  in  England,  5-6,  247-48, 
383-84;  in  Italy,  273,  382;  m 
Austria-Hungary,  382;  in  Nor- 
way, 383  (See  Suffrage) 

Wagram,  battle  of,  179 

Wales,  disestabHshment  of  Church, 

393 

Walpole,  Sir  Robert,  5,  66,  75,  78 

Wandewash,  battle  of,  74 

Wars,  Great  Civil  in  England,  2,  24, 
59;  table  of,  eighteenth  century, 
61;  French  and  Indian,  61,  70; 
Palatinate,  61,  62;  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, 7,  22,  61,  63;  Jenkins' 
Ear,  67;  Austrian  Succession, 
61,  68;  Seven  Years',  74;  1812, 
176-77;  Peninsular,  178;  Liber- 
ation, 179;  Opium,  334-35; 
Crimean,  262-65;  Italian  or 
Austro-Sardinian,  265,  267; 
Danish,  265,  277;  Seven  Weeks', 
or  Austro-Prussian,  265,  278- 
79;  Franco-German,  265,  284- 
87;  Russo-Turkish,  329;  Chino- 
Japanese,  336-37;  Russo-Japanese, 
339-40,  374;  Boer,  324-25; 
Turco-ItaHan,  323;  Balkan,  317; 
Great  War,  1914,  350-53 

Warsaw,  Grand  Duchy  of,  172,  179 

Wartburg  festival,  229 

Washington,  George,  78 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  182 

Watt,  James,  202 

Weaving  process,  198 

Wedgwood,  Josiah,  201 


INDEX 


437 


Wellington,  Duke  of,  in  Spain,  178; 
at  Waterloo,  182;  ministry  of,  247 

West  Indies,  slavery  abolished  in,  250 

Westphalia  treaty,  i,  21;  Kingdom 
of,  172 

Whigs,  origin,  4;  Junto,  4;  in  1740, 
6;  rivalry  with  Tories,  7;  under 
Walpole,  78;  time  of  William  Pitt, 
the  Younger,  85;  interest  in  agri- 
culture, 192;  name  changed  to 
Liberals,  250 

Whitney,  Eli,  189-99 

Wilberforce,   William,    250 

William  I,  (German  Emperor)  of 
Prussia,  personality,  275;  defeats 
Napoleon  III,  286;  proclaimed 
Emperor,  288;  influence,  364 

William  II,  of  Germany,  aims,  363; 
encouragement  of  navy,  368-69; 
interest  in  the  army,  369;  por- 
trait, 369 

William  III,  of  England  3,  4,  7,  62- 
63 


William,  IV  of  England,  247 

Witte,  Serge  de,  sjs 

Woman  suffrage,  in  Norway,  383;  in 
England,  384 

Workingmen's  compensation,  396 

"Worship  of  Reason,"  141 

"Writs  of  Assistance,"  81 

Wurtemberg,  made  a  kingdom,  170; 
not  in  North  German  Confedera- 
tion, 279 

X-Rays,  398 

X,  Y,  Z,  affair,  160 

Young,  Arthur,  192-93 
"Young  Italy,"  242 
"Young  Turks,"  316 
Yuan-Shi-K'ai,  341-42 

Zemstva,  372 
Zollverein,  274 
Zurich,  159,  267 


THEPLIMPTON-PEKSS 
N  O  R  W  O  O  D-M  A  S  S-U-S-A 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


^^■^^y^Rdts. 

BnC-D  I  n 

MAV  1  7'R/i  ^  „., 

'  o  PM 

( El  602810 )  476B                              ^'"''^"g.J^el^^^'^®'^'"* 

^ 


